Czech Republic, landlocked republic in central Europe, comprising the historic regions of Bohemia and Moravia, and part of Silesia. The republic borders Poland to the north, Germany to the northwest and west, Austria to the south, and Slovakia to the east. Prague is its capital and largest city.

The Czech-inhabited lands of Bohemia and Moravia were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from the early 17th century until 1918, when they were united in a common state with Slovakia and part of Silesia. The new state, a democratic republic known as Czechoslovakia, was broken up during World War II, but was reestablished at the end of the war in 1945. From 1948 to 1989 the republic was ruled by a Communist regime. In November 1989 the Communist government was ousted and Czechoslovakia again became a democratic state. During the early 1990s, political and economic conflicts developed between the Czechs and Slovaks, and leaders of both groups decided to dissolve the republic. In January 1993 Czechoslovakia was replaced by two independent states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The total area of the Czech Republic is 78,864 sq km (30,450 sq mi). The maximum distance from east to west is about 490 km (about 305 mi), and the maximum distance from north to south is about 280 km (about 175 mi). Mountain ranges bound much of the country.

The Czech Republic contains two main regions�Bohemia, located in the west, and Moravia, located in the east. Part of the region of Silesia occupies the north-central section of the country.

The central part of the Czech Republic is dominated by the elevated plateaus of the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands and the low plains and rolling hills of the Bohemian Basin. A number of rivers drain these areas, and much of the country�s farmland is located there. Rising along the edges of these central regions and extending outward to form much of the country�s natural border are a number of mountain ranges. The Erzgebirge in the north and the Šumava Mountains in the west, are known for their spas and ski resorts. The Šumava comprise part of the Böhmerwald (Bohemian Forest), a highland region located in the west and southwest that forms the country�s border with Germany. The Sudety mountains are located in the north and form part of the border with Poland. The Sudety range includes the Krkonoše Mountains, which contain the country�s highest point, Sněžka (1,603 m/5,259 ft). One of the country�s largest nature reserves is also located in the Sudety range. Extending along the Czech-Slovak border in the southeastern part of the country is a section of the Carpathian Mountains. Also located in the southeast are the Moravian Lowlands, which contain the fertile valley of the Morava River where a variety of crops are grown.

The main rivers of the Czech Republic are the Elbe (known locally as the Labe), the Vltava, the Ohře, the Morava, the Lužnice, the Jihlava, and the Svratka. The Sázava, Odra (Oder), and Opava rivers are also important.

Most of the forest vegetation in the Czech Republic is evergreen. The main deciduous trees are oaks, beeches, birches, poplars, and willows. Wildlife includes rabbits, pheasants, deer, and boar. Environmental damage has severely reduced the number of wildlife and damaged many of the country�s forests.

The Czech Republic has relatively few natural resources and is heavily dependent on imported energy and raw materials. Large deposits of lignite (a type of coal), the country�s main domestic source of energy, are found near the cities of Chomutov, Most, Karlovy Vary, Teplice, and České Budějovice. Hard coal is found near Ostrava, Plzeň, and Kladno. Sizable uranium deposits and smaller deposits of mercury, antimony, and tin are located in the Ore Mountains. There are also small amounts of lead and zinc ore in central Bohemia and iron ore near Prague. Some 34 percent of the country is forested. The Böhmerwald is an important source of lumber.

The soils of the Czech Republic vary by topography. Crops and orchards cover two-fifths of the land. About 8 percent of the country�s soil is of top quality.

The Czech Republic has a humid, continental climate, with cold winters and warm summers. The average temperature range in Prague is -5�C (22�F) to 0�C (33�F) in January and 12�C (53�F) to 23�C (74�F) in July. Temperatures generally decrease with increasing altitude. Prague receives an average of 530 mm (21 in) of precipitation annually. Precipitation is generally heaviest during the summer months.

The development policies of the Communist era combined with a lack of attention to environmental issues produced serious environmental problems in the Czech Republic. Drinking-water supplies and much of the country�s soils are contaminated with heavy metals and other industrial and agricultural wastes. Air pollution is a serious problem in many cities, particularly in the region of northern Bohemia; pollution has also degraded many of the country�s forests. With outside funds, the post-Communist governments have begun to address the country�s environmental problems. Recent efforts include the closing of several lignite mines and stricter enforcement of environmental regulations. Environmental considerations have also led government officials to consider nuclear energy as a main source of power for the country�s future.

The Czech Republic produces most of its energy by burning domestic coal. Much of the coal burned is low quality with a high ash and sulfur content, producing high levels of air pollution. Forests in the Czech Republic are among the most seriously affected by acid rain in all of Europe. Fertilizer applications are uncontrolled. In some areas of the country the nitrate content is so high that the water is considered unsafe for human consumption.

The Czech people are descended from Slavic tribes who arrived in Bohemia and Moravia in the 5th century ad. The Czechs are the country�s dominant ethnic group, representing about 94 percent of the population; Slovaks account for about 3 percent; and Poles, Germans, Roma (Gypsies), and Hungarians comprise most of the remainder.

At the time of the 1991 census, the total population of the Czech Republic was 10,302,215; the 2001 estimate was 10,264,212. The population density, based on the 2001 estimate, was 130 persons per sq km (337 per sq mi). The country is divided informally into seven regions, corresponding to administrative divisions that were abolished after the collapse of Communism. These regions, with their 1991 census populations, are Central Bohemia (1,112,882, excluding Prague), Southern Bohemia (697,503), Western Bohemia (860,292), Northern Bohemia (1,174,034), Eastern Bohemia (1,233,187), Southern Moravia (2,049,386) and Northern Moravia (1,960,757). The Czech Republic has been one of Europe�s most highly industrialized regions since the latter half of the 19th century. Some 66 percent of the population lives in urban areas.

Prague (population, 1999 estimate, 1,193,270) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Other important cities include Brno (384,727), an educational and industrial center; Ostrava (322,111), a center for metallurgical industries; Plzeň (168,422), noted for its breweries; and Olomouc (103,372), a trade and industrial center.

The official language of the Czech Republic is Czech, a language of the West Slavic subgroup of Slavic languages. Moravians speak a form of Czech that differs slightly from the form spoken in Bohemia. Slovaks speak Slovak, a language closely related to Czech. Members of other ethnic groups generally speak Czech in addition to their own native languages. See Czech Language.

The principal religion of the Czech Republic is Christianity. Approximately 39 percent of the population is Roman Catholic. Other active Christian churches include the Orthodox Church and Protestant denominations such as the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren and the Czechoslovak Hussite church. Many of those who identify as members of religious organizations do not practice their religion actively.

Prior to World War II (1939-1945), the country had a large Jewish population. Most of the Jews died in the Holocaust, the Nazi campaign to exterminate the Jews of Europe. There are currently between 15,000 and 18,000 Jews living in the Czech Republic; the Jewish population is centered in Prague.

Nearly all adults are literate in the Czech Republic. Education is compulsory from 6 through 15 years of age, when students attend elementary school. After completion of this stage, most students continue their education at a general secondary school or a vocational secondary school, both of which offer four-year programs. Others enter teacher-training institutes, which require two to four years to complete. Under Communism, all schools were run by the government. In 1990 the establishment of private and religious schools was legalized. Although most schools in the Czech Republic are still state controlled, there are now more than 50 private elementary schools and more than 200 private secondary schools.

Charles University, located in Prague, is the most important university in the country. Founded in 1348 by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe. Other important universities include Masaryk University, located in Brno and founded in 1919, and Palacký University, located in Olomouc, founded in 1573 and reestablished in 1946. The Central European University also has a branch in Prague (founded in 1991).

During the Communist period, living standards in Czechoslovakia were among the highest in the Communist world. The reintroduction of a market economy in the early 1990s led to a decline in living standards. However, the economy has begun to recover, and most people in the Czech Republic live comfortably. Czech households typically have refrigerators, washing machines, automobiles, and televisions. Some families have a summer or weekend cottage.

Certain sectors of the population, including single mothers, the elderly, and adults with low education and skill levels, have been hit particularly hard by the process of economic transition. There is currently a serious housing shortage in the Czech Republic. Most urban dwellers live in crowded apartments. Many live in high-rises that were poorly constructed.

Pork is a staple in the Czech diet, which resembles that of Germany. Pickled cabbage and sliced, boiled dumplings called knedlíky are eaten frequently. Open-face sandwiches and frankfurters are often served at snack bars. Many Western fast food companies have opened restaurants in the Czech Republic. Czech beer is known throughout the world. Moravians make and drink wine.

Typical forms of recreation include visits to the local tavern and watching movies and television. Many Czechs play or watch soccer, and families often spend weekends at their country houses or hiking in rural areas. Ballet, opera, theater, and musical performances are popular among Czechs living in urban areas.

The Czech Republic suffers from many of the problems typical of advanced industrial societies. Crime has increased since 1989, and many other problems that were suppressed under Communism, such as prostitution, drug abuse, alcoholism, and juvenile delinquency have worsened as well. New problems have also emerged since the collapse of the Communist government, including corruption, organized crime, money laundering (transferring illegally obtained income through an outside party to conceal its true source), smuggling, and the development of an illegal arms trade. Discrimination against women has become more open.

Relations among Czechs and Slovaks living in the Czech Republic are generally friendly. Some attacks on Roma by white-supremacist youths have occurred. The provisions of the Czech Republic�s citizenship law include stiff requirements that prevent some of the Roma from qualifying as citizens. This has provoked concern among the Roma and some human rights advocates.

Illegal immigration and the influx of refugees have troubled the Czech Republic since the end of Communist rule and the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Approximately 250,000 refugees, principally from the former Yugoslavia and parts of the former USSR, have passed through the Czech Republic annually in recent years en route to the more economically and politically stable countries of the West, including Germany.

Prague was a major European cultural center prior to the Communist era, and Czech intellectuals and artists have made numerous and significant contributions to art, literature, and music.

The foundations of Czech literature date back as far as the 9th century but really gained strength during the awakening of national identity that occurred in the 19th century. Well-known Czech authors of the 20th century include Franz Kafka, Jaroslav Hašek, and Karel Čapek. More contemporary writers include the novelist and critic Milan Kundera, and the playwright Václav Havel; Havel became Czechoslovakia�s president following the collapse of Communism in 1989 and, after resigning in July 1992 amid the political squabbles that led to Czechoslovakia�s split, was elected president of the new Czech Republic in January 1993. Czech poet Jaroslav Seifert won the Nobel Prize for poetry in 1984. See Czech Literature.

The Czech-French painter and poster designer Alphonse Mucha, who worked during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was one of the leading artists of the art nouveau period. František Kupka, a contemporary of Mucha�s, was an early abstract painter. Both played an influential role in the development of European art.

There are many fine examples of architecture in the Czech Republic. Structures dating from the Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, baroque, art nouveau, and socialist realist periods are found throughout Prague and many other cities and towns. Artifacts associated with the Czech reformation are found in the city of Tábor in southern Bohemia. The Czech countryside is dotted with approximately 2,500 castles of various styles.

The Czech Republic has a strong folk tradition. Popular folk arts include puppet theater and the making of a blue-and-white painted fabric known as modrotisk. Hand-painted eggs and glass paintings are other examples of traditional folk arts.

Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, and Leoš Janáček are the three best-known Czech composers. Smetana, who wrote his major works in the late 19th century, based much of his music on Czech folk songs and dances. His famous opera The Bartered Bride (1866) provided a comic portrayal of Czech national life. Dvořák, a contemporary of Smetana, was a master of the symphony also known for incorporating Czech folk music into his works. Janáček, whose career reached its height in the early 20th century, used the styles of Moravian folk music in the composition of his operas.

The National Library, founded in 1366 as part of Charles University, is the country�s largest library. The National Museum in Prague (founded in 1818) is the most important museum. There are also important libraries and museums located in Brno and Olomouc.

Despite the limitations and ideological controls imposed on Czech cinema by the Nazi and Communist governments, Czech films and film directors have gained international recognition in the 20th century. The New Wave of Czech cinema began in the 1960s, when Miloš Forman, Jiří Menzel, and other directors made a number of important films that looked critically at social and political conditions in the country. The Czech film industry also has a strong tradition in animated and puppet films; among the most popular are those produced by Jiří Trnka.

The Czech lands have been traditionally among the most economically developed regions of Europe. When the Communists came to power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, they created a highly centralized economic system. Nearly all aspects of economic planning and management came under the control of the central government. Virtually all of the country�s economic assets were placed in state hands; economic managers and decision-makers were cut off from their counterparts in the West; and foreign trade was conducted almost exclusively with other Communist countries. Although the economy remained strong by Eastern European standards, with one of the highest standards of living in the Communist world, the policies adopted by the Communist government led to long-term economic decline in Czechoslovakia. After the collapse of Communism in 1989, the new leaders of Czechoslovakia had to deal with this legacy.

In the early 1990s the post-Communist government moved quickly to convert the economy to a system based on free enterprise. A number of reform measures were adopted, including a voucher privatization plan, which gave citizens, for a low administrative fee, coupons that could later be traded for stock in companies. The voucher plan successfully transferred large parts of the economy to private ownership. By December 1994 more than 80 percent of firms in the Czech Republic were privatized or had decided on a privatization strategy. Business boomed in Prague and other cities in the mid-1990s as entrepreneurs established new companies. The government has also succeeded in reestablishing trade with the West and obtaining substantial levels of foreign investment.

The average standard of living in the Czech Republic dropped somewhat in the early 1990s as market reforms were introduced, but in recent years the economy has begun to recover. Inflation was about 10 percent in late 1994, less than half of what it was in 1991. Gross domestic product (GDP) increased by approximately 2 percent in 1994. Industrial production, which declined sharply in 1990 and 1991, also grew in 1994. The country�s foreign debt has remained modest. By 1999 the GDP had reached $53.1 billion.

The Czech Republic is a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Central European Free Trade Association, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The country became an associate member of the European Union (EU) in October 1993 and in December 1997 was invited to begin the process of becoming a full member. One of six nations picked for the EU�s first round of expansion, the Czech Republic is expected to join the organization within five to ten years.

The unemployment level in the Czech Republic has remained stable, standing at 4.7 percent in 1997. The service sector employs 53 percent of the labor force; 41 percent work in manufacturing and other areas of industry; and 6 percent are employed in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Many of the country�s trade unions are affiliated with the Czech-Moravian Chamber of Trade Unions, which was founded in 1990 with headquarters in Prague.

Some 40 percent of land in the Czech Republic is cultivated. During the Communist period, farms were either owned by the state or administered as cooperatives, in which farmworkers received a share of the farm�s profits and some of its products. In 1991 legislation was passed allowing citizens to own their own farms; however, much of the country�s land remains in state or cooperative hands. Due largely to a decline in state subsidies, the number of workers employed in agriculture has declined dramatically since the end of Communism. Agriculture plays a relatively small role in the nation�s export industry.

The principal crops grown in the Czech Republic are barley, wheat, corn, rye, sugar beets, potatoes, flax, and hops. Czech farmers also raise sizable numbers of livestock animals, including poultry, pigs, cattle, and sheep.

The principal mineral extracted in the Czech Republic is coal, particularly lignite. The importance of mining has decreased since 1989, as stricter environmental regulations have made the mining of lignite unprofitable.

Between 1918 and 1939 Czechoslovakia was predominantly a producer of light industrial goods, including textiles, footwear, porcelain, and glass. Under Communist rule, these industries became less important and heavy industry, including metallurgy and mining, was emphasized. Czechoslovakia became a producer of steel, machinery, and weapons. Since the collapse of Communism in 1989, many inefficient enterprises have been closed. Heavy industry continues to be important, but a number of traditional industries have reemerged. The principal manufactured products of the Czech Republic are woven fabrics, paper, crude steel, pig iron, and footwear; cheese and beer are important processed foods.

Due to limited resources, the Czech Republic must import the bulk of its energy supply. Gas and oil are supplied mainly by pipelines through Slovakia. In 1998 thermal plants fueled by coal provided 76 percent of electricity in the Czech Republic; 20.37 percent was generated by nuclear reactors. Due largely to the problem of air pollution resulting from the burning of coal, the Czech government planned to increase the country�s use of nuclear energy.

The tourism industry in the Czech Republic has grown significantly since the collapse of Communism. The country�s numerous resorts, winter sports facilities, and historic cities and towns are popular destinations for travelers. Prague is becoming an international center for members of the business and financial communities.

Prior to 1989 nearly all of Czechoslovakia�s foreign trade was conducted with the USSR and other Communist states. By 1992 the country was trading mainly with developed Western nations. Since the Czech Republic emerged as an independent country in 1993, trade has remained strongly oriented toward the West. In 1999 imports were valued at $29 billion and exports at $26.9 billion. Exports included coal, machinery, steel, automobiles, footwear, railroad cars, and iron. Imports included energy and raw materials (especially oil and natural gas), machinery, automobiles, iron and other ores, telecommunications equipment, and pharmaceuticals. The Czech Republic�s main suppliers of imports, listed in order of importance, are Germany, Slovakia, Russia, Austria, Italy, and France. Its leading export purchasers are Germany, Slovakia, Austria, Italy, France, Russia, Poland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hungary, the United States, and Belgium.

The Czech Republic and Slovakia had agreed to maintain a common currency when they separated in January 1993, but within one month the two countries began using separate currencies. The monetary unit of the Czech Republic is the Czech koruna (34.57 koruny equal U.S. $1; 1999 average).

In the early 1990s the Czechoslovak banking system shifted from a state-controlled system to one that included private commercial banks; nearly 50 banks now have operations in the Czech Republic. The country�s central bank is the Czech National Bank, located in Prague. The Czech stock exchange, also located in Prague, opened in January 1993.

The Czech Republic has a well-developed transportation system with service between most cities and links to neighboring countries. There are 128,854 km (80,066 mi) of roads and highways and 9,430 km (5,860 mi) of railway in the Czech Republic. Navigable waterways include the Elbe River and its tributary, the Vltava River, which connect the country to the North Sea. The Odra (Oder) River provides a transportation outlet to the Baltic Sea. Prague has an international airport. The country�s main airline is Czechoslovak Airlines (CSA).

Most families in the Czech Republic own their own automobiles. Many citizens use public transportation, which is inexpensive and convenient. Prague has a subway system.

In 1996 there were 21 daily newspapers and hundreds of journals, magazines, and other periodicals published in the Czech Republic, many in Prague. Several were owned in whole or in part by foreign investors. Broadcasting is under the supervision of the independent Board for Radio and Television. Radio and television stations operate under both state and private ownership. The majority of households have radios and televisions.

Mass demonstrations held in a number of cities in late 1989 brought about the end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. A non-Communist government took office, and the country�s new leaders began to recreate democratic political institutions and revive democratic traditions from the interwar period. Free multiparty elections were held in Czechoslovakia in June 1990.

In the early 1990s economic disagreements between Czechs and Slovaks, combined with conflicting views about the proper role of the federal and republican governments, prevented the adoption of a new constitution. Federal and local elections held in June 1992 brought a center-right government to power in the Czech Republic, while a leftist government won control in Slovakia. Later that year, the leaders of the two republics decided to split the federation into two independent countries. A new constitution of the Czech Republic, adopted in December 1992, went into effect with independence in January 1993. The Czech Republic is a parliamentary democracy.

The Czech Republic has both a president and a prime minister. The president acts as head of state. He or she is elected by parliament for a five-year term and may not serve more than two consecutive terms. The president appoints the prime minister; under the advice of the prime minister, the president also appoints the 17 members of the cabinet. The prime minister, who is typically the leader of the party with the majority of seats in parliament, acts as head of government.

The Czech parliament consists of two chambers, the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house). The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members, elected by popular vote for four-year terms. The Senate consists of 81 members, elected for six-year terms; one-third of Senate seats come up for election every two years. All citizens over the age of 18 are eligible to vote in the Czech Republic.

The highest court of appeals in the Czech Republic is the Supreme Court. There is also a Constitutional Court, a Supreme Administrative Court, and various high, regional, and district courts. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president of the republic for unlimited terms. The president appoints the 15 judges of the Constitutional Court for ten-year terms. Constitutional Court appointments are subject to approval by the Senate.

More than 100 political parties were registered in Czechoslovakia after the Communist system collapsed in 1989. Of the 40 parties that participated in the 1992 elections, 12 won representation in the federal legislature, and eight were registered in the Czech National Council, which became the Czech legislature after the breakup of Czechoslovakia.

The most popular party in the Czech Republic is the center-left Czech Social Democratic Party, which won 32 percent of the vote in 1998. The center-right Civic Democratic Party won the second largest share of the vote (28 percent). Other parties represented in the Czech parliament include the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, the Christian-Democratic Union-Czech People�s Party, the Association for the Republic-Czechoslovak Republican Party, Freedom Union, and the Civic Democratic Alliance.

Administrative reform abolished regional-level governments in 1990. The constitution adopted in 1992 requires that the country be divided into several new territorial and administrative divisions; however, this had not been put into effect as of early 1999. In the absence of the new divisions, the Czech Republic was administered at the local level by 75 districts with power over local taxation, schools, roads, utilities, and public health.

During the Communist period, a single, universal social-welfare system was established in Czechoslovakia. Health care was guaranteed and in most cases made available free of charge. In 1991 government officials introduced a new system of social security in an attempt to lessen the anticipated consequences of radical economic reform. When the Czech Republic became independent in 1993, the government announced plans to gradually privatize the health-care system.

Today the Czech government continues to provide social welfare for many groups of citizens. Although citizens are free to visit private doctors, most continue to rely on state-supported clinics. Some public childcare facilities have been closed due to lack of funds.

After 1989 the army of Czechoslovakia was substantially reduced. When the federation dissolved several years later, the army was divided into separate Czech and Slovak forces. In 1999 the total strength of the Czech armed forces was 57,700 soldiers. Military service is compulsory for all males age 18 and older and lasts for 12 months. Since 1989, citizens who object to military service may perform alternative service instead.

The Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations (UN) and the Council of Europe (CE). The country also participates in the Visegrad Group and the Central European Initiative (CEI), both of which were founded to promote cooperation in the region after the collapse of Communism. In March 1999 the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the first three formerly Communist nations to do so.

The region that became the Czech Republic was inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes before Slavic tribes from eastern Europe arrived in the 5th century ad. Soon after their arrival, the Slavic tribes were conquered by a Mongolian people known as the Avars. In about 623 a Frankish merchant named Samo organized the Slavic tribes into a kingdom and led this kingdom to defeat the Avars. Samo ruled over this Slavic kingdom, centered in Bohemia, until his death in 658.

In Moravia, Slavic tribes helped the Frankish king, Charlemagne, destroy the Avar empire in the late 700s and were rewarded by receiving part of it as a fief. In the early part of the next century, a Slavic chief named Mojmír I expanded this Slavic state to include Bohemia, Slovakia, southern Poland, and parts of western Hungary. The expanded state came to be known as the Empire of Great Moravia. In 907 Magyar tribes from Hungary conquered the region, the empire disintegrated, and Slovakia came under Hungarian rule.

In the 10th century the Premyslids�a dynasty of the legendary Cechove, or Ceši, tribe, from which the Czechs derived their name�unified neighboring Czech tribes and established a form of centralized rule in Bohemia. Under the Premyslids, Bohemia expanded its territory and came under the protection of the German-based Holy Roman Empire. In 1212 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II made Bohemia a largely independent kingdom within the empire. During the 1200s, many German craftsworkers and merchants settled in Bohemia, contributing to the growing prosperity of the region. In 1335 Bohemia was expanded to include a large part of Silesia.

Bohemia achieved great political and cultural prominence under King Charles IV (also called Charles of Luxemburg), who reigned from 1347 to 1378. Under Charles, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355, Prague grew into a major European center of learning and culture. Extensive building projects were undertaken, the most significant of which was the founding of Charles University in 1348, the first university in central Europe.

In the late 14th and early 15th centuries an important church-reform movement took place in the Czech lands. Based on the teachings of the Bohemian religious reformer John Huss (also spelled Jan Hus), the Hussite movement attacked the authority and corruption of the Roman Catholic church (see Hussites; Hussite Wars). Hus was tried for heresy, and burned at the stake in 1415. His death triggered a series of religious wars in Bohemia, which ended in 1446 with a compromise. In 1458 Jirí of Podebrady, a Protestant, was elected king of Bohemia by supporters of Jan Hus. Jirí was the first Protestant to be elected king in all of Europe. In the late 1400s, most of the Czech nobility converted to Protestantism.

In the 15th century, Bohemia was ruled by a Polish prince, Vladislav II, who was also the king of Hungary. In 1526 the death of Vladislav II�s heir left the crowns of both Hungary and Bohemia vacant, and Ferdinand I, a member of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, became king of Hungary and Bohemia. Much of the next century was characterized by conflict between the Czech nobility and the Habsburg monarchy. In 1618 a revolt by the Czech Protestant nobility began the Thirty Years� War. In 1620 the Bohemian army was defeated at the Battle of the White Mountain and many Czech nobles and cultural leaders were killed or forced into exile. Those who remained in the Czech lands were forced to convert to Catholicism and to give up their own language and culture in favor of German.

German culture was dominant in the Czech lands for the next 150 years. In the late 1700s industries began to develop in Bohemia and Moravia and many Czech peasants began moving to urban areas, which at that time were populated almost entirely by Germans. At the same time, Czech writers, journalists, and intellectuals began working to create greater national consciousness among the Czechs. By the second half of the 19th century, a mass movement calling for Czech self-government had developed in the Czech lands. Habsburg rule continued, however. In 1867 the Habsburg domains in central Europe were reconstituted as the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

During World War I (1914-1918) Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and other Czech leaders began to advocate the idea of an independent state for Czechs and Slovaks, and worked to increase support for their cause among Czechs and Slovaks living abroad. In 1918 the war ended, the empire of Austria-Hungary collapsed, and the independent state of Czechoslovakia was created, bringing Czechs and Slovaks together in a common state for the first time in modern history. The new republic included Bohemia and Moravia, part of Silesia, and Slovakia; the eastern region of Ruthenia became part of Czechoslovakia the following year.

The constitution of Czechoslovakia established a democratic republic committed to the protection of civil rights for all citizens. Masaryk served as president of the republic from its founding until 1935, when he was succeeded by Edvard Beneš. During the 1920s and early 1930s Czechoslovakia was remarkably stable. The country had inherited a wealth of economic resources from the Habsburg monarchy, including a strong industrial base, and this period was one of considerable economic prosperity. The chief domestic problem facing the new leaders of Czechoslovakia was a growing disaffection among the country�s large national minorities, the Slovaks and the Sudeten Germans.

Despite their similar heritage, Czechs and Slovaks differed in a number of important ways. The Czech lands were highly developed economically with a social structure similar to that of other developed European nations, while Slovakia was largely agrarian; the Czech leadership rejected the authority of the clergy, while the majority of Slovaks were practicing Catholics; and the Czech people had generally more education and experience with self-government than the Slovaks. Although attempts were made to industrialize Slovakia, these efforts were largely unsuccessful, due in part to the Great Depression, the worldwide economic slump of the 1930s. Poverty, unemployment, and frustration over the predominant role played by Czechs in the country�s political and economic life led many Slovaks to emigrate from Czechoslovakia or join nationalist Slovak movements.

Resentment was even stronger among the country�s German population, most of whom lived in the Sudetenland on Czechoslovakia�s western border. Unhappy with their loss of status following the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the impact of Czechoslovak laws on their economic situation, many Sudeten Germans came to support extreme nationalist parties and the policies of Nazi Germany (see National Socialism).

In 1938 German dictator Adolf Hitler used the demands of the Sudeten Germans to force the government of Czechoslovakia to give the Sudetenland to Germany. Czechoslovak leaders relied on their French and British allies to resist Hitler�s pressure. However, at the Munich Conference of 1938, the French and British decided to appease Hitler (see Munich Pact). Faced with desertion by his allies, President Beneš agreed to German demands. Later that year, Hungary and Poland claimed other parts of Czechoslovakia. Faced with the threat of being divided by Germany, Poland, and Hungary, Slovak leaders decided to withdraw from the republic and declare independence. The Slovak state created in March 1939 copied the policies of Germany and had little real independence. Meanwhile, German forces invaded and occupied Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the entire region as a protectorate. World War II broke out several months later. In July 1940 Beneš, who had resigned as president in 1938, established a government in exile in London.

Although the Czech people suffered greatly under German occupation, loss of life among Czechs during World War II was relatively minor compared to that of other nations. The Jewish population of the Czech lands was virtually annihilated, however. More than 70,000 Czech Jews were killed by the Nazis between 1939 and 1945.

In May 1945 troops from the USSR liberated most of Czechoslovakia. The part of Bohemia containing the city of Plzeň was liberated by American forces. Beneš and the other members of the government in exile returned and the republic of Czechoslovakia was resurrected, with the exception of Ruthenia, which was taken over by the USSR. From 1945 until February 1948, Czechoslovakia enjoyed a form of limited political pluralism. While leaders of the Communist Party held many important government positions, other political parties were also represented. During this period, the government nationalized a number of major industries and expelled large numbers of Germans and Hungarians from their homes.

In the 1946 elections, the Communist Party won 38 percent of the vote, a higher percentage than any other party. In February 1948 the Communists provoked a crisis that led to the resignation of non-Communist government ministers and the formation of a new Communist-dominated government. President Beneš resigned soon afterward, and was replaced by Communist Party leader Klement Gottwald.

Once in power, Czechoslovakia�s Communist leaders attempted to copy the Soviet model of political organization and economic development. Other political parties were outlawed or subordinated to the Communist Party, which became the only effective political force in the country. The secret police became increasingly powerful. Economic decision-making was centralized, and almost all economic assets became state property. Farmers were forced to enter collective farms. And government censorship of the press and various forms of artistic expression became widespread.

The early 1950s was a period of harsh repression in Czechoslovakia. Many top political leaders were imprisoned or executed for having opinions that the government considered disloyal. In 1953 Gottwald died and was replaced by Antonin Zápotocký, who permitted a moderate liberalization of conditions. However, when Antonin Novotný assumed the presidency in 1957, strict governmental control was reimposed.

During the 1960s the country experienced a decline in economic performance. In 1968 a Slovak named Alexander Dubček became the head of the Communist Party. Dubček introduced a program of liberal reforms known as the �Prague Spring� or �socialism with a human face� in an attempt to find a form of socialism better suited to Czechoslovakia. The press was given greater freedom, citizens were granted opportunities to participate in politics, and steps were taken to decentralize the economy. However, the USSR feared that the reforms would weaken Communist control of Czechoslovakia, and on August 20 of that year, the Soviet Army, assisted by troops from other Warsaw Pact nations, invaded Czechoslovakia and halted the liberalization process. In April 1969 Gustav Husák replaced Dubček as head of the Communist Party. Many intellectuals and party leaders who had supported liberalization lost their positions as well. Húsak reestablished tight party control and censorship of the press, and the Communist Party came to dominate political life once again.

During the 1970s the Communist leadership of Czechoslovakia attempted to gain popular support and preserve political stability by raising the standard of living. They also used force and coercion against people who opposed the regime. In these conditions, most people withdrew from public life. However, a small but important group of dissidents (political protesters) openly opposed the regime. Charter 77 and the Committee to Defend the Unjustly Persecuted (known by its Czech acronym, VONS) became the most important dissident organizations.

In the late 1980s the dissident movement in Czechoslovakia grew, encouraged by the reforms that were taking place in the USSR under Mikhail Gorbachev. In late 1989 Czechs joined with Slovaks in mass demonstrations against the Communist government. Less than one month later, the government resigned and non-Communists took control of the country. A new movement called Civic Forum was formed to represent democratic forces in the Czech lands, and a similar movement called Public against Violence (PAV) developed in Slovakia. In December the parliament elected Václav Havel, a dissident and non-Communist, to be the country�s new president. The transition to non-Communist rule in Czechoslovakia occurred so smoothly and peacefully that it came to be known as the Velvet Revolution.

In June 1990 the first free elections since 1946 were held in Czechoslovakia. The majority of seats in parliament were won by Havel�s Civic Forum in the Czech Republic and by the PAV, led by Vladimír Mečiar, in Slovakia. The parliament reelected Havel as president in July, and Havel asked Marian Čalfa, a former Communist, to head the government as prime minister. The country�s new leaders took office and began the process of reinstituting democratic institutions in Czechoslovakia. Freedom of the press and other political freedoms were restored; and laws were passed to remove the legacy of Communism from the legal system.

The government also took steps to reintroduce a market economy in Czechoslovakia. In the early 1990s a mass privatization program went into effect with the goal of shifting large numbers of state-owned companies into private hands. This was achieved mainly through a voucher privatization plan, which allowed citizens to purchase low-cost vouchers that they could later trade for shares of stock in companies. Nearly all eligible citizens participated in this plan. The country�s new leaders also reoriented Czechoslovakia�s foreign policy. They established good relations with the United States and Czechoslovakia�s Western European neighbors and indicated their interest in joining international organizations such as the European Community (now the European Union or EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

However, as these and other reforms got underway, tensions developed between Czech and Slovak leaders. In part, these tensions reflected the different histories of the two regions; but they also reflected the fact that economic reform was producing greater hardship in Slovakia than it was in the more economically developed Czech lands. Because of their economic differences, Czechs and Slovaks held conflicting views about the appropriate pace and nature of economic reform. They also disagreed about how power should be divided between the federal and republican governments. These differences complicated the reform process and prevented the adoption of a new constitution.

Disagreements between the two republics came to a head in the June 1992 parliamentary elections. The right-of-center Civic Democratic Party, led by Václav Klaus, won the elections in the Czech lands, while Vladimír Mečiar�s left-of-center Movement for a Democratic Slovakia won the largest share of the votes in Slovakia. Disagreements between the republics intensified, and in July Slovakia declared its sovereignty. Havel resigned as president of the Czechoslovak federation after this step.

Throughout the fall of 1992 Czech and Slovak leaders negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on December 31, despite polls indicating that a majority of citizens opposed the break up. In January 1993 the Czechoslovak federation was replaced by two new independent states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. By the end of the year, the two countries had reached agreement on the division of 95 percent of federal property, and had established close links, especially in the area of trade.

Václav Havel was elected president of the new Czech Republic in January 1993. Václav Klaus, who had become the Czech prime minister in June 1992, continued to head the government. Under Klaus�s leadership, the government introduced another wave of voucher privatization in the fall of 1993. By the end of 1994, an estimated 70 percent of industry had been privatized. Though the economy had declined somewhat following the collapse of Communism, it began to recover in the mid-1990s. The inflation level dropped, unemployment remained low, and the country attracted sizable amounts of foreign investment.

Following its creation in 1993, the Czech Republic experienced remarkable political stability. Support for Klaus and his government remained high, and there was little popular support for extremist groups on either end of the political spectrum.

After a great deal of debate, the government voted in April 1994 to return property to the families of Czech Jews who were dispossessed by the Nazi regime during World War II. In recent years, debates have also arisen concerning treatment of the country�s large Roma minority. A significant proportion of the Roma population has been excluded from Czech citizenship due to stiff requirements. Some citizens and human rights advocates have expressed concern that the country�s citizenship law effectively discriminates against this already disadvantaged group.

In foreign affairs, the Czech government maintained good relations with neighboring central European countries, and continued to emphasize the importance of close ties with Western Europe. Czech leaders continued to press for full integration into international organizations, including the EU and NATO.

In June 1996 the Czech Republic held its first parliamentary elections since the country split from Slovakia in 1993. Prime Minister Klaus�s center-right coalition lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies (lower house of parliament) by a narrow margin, and the center-left Czech Social Democratic Party, the political opponent of Klaus�s Civic Democratic Party, greatly increased its representation. The election results surprised many observers, as the Czech Republic had been consistently viewed as the most politically stable of the former Communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe; the results were widely believed to reflect Czech voters� dissatisfaction with some of the policies of Klaus�s government, including its reform of the social welfare system. Following the elections, Klaus signed a coalition agreement to form a minority government and was reappointed prime minister.

In November elections were held for the Senate, or upper house of parliament, and center-right parties of the ruling coalition won the majority of seats. The elections were the first ever for the 81-member Senate, which came into existence in September 1995 by a vote in the Chamber of Deputies. Although the constitution that took effect in 1993 had provided for the creation of the Senate, disagreements within the Chamber of Deputies had hitherto prevented its establishment.