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Sweden, officially Konungariket Sverige (Kingdom of Sweden), constitutional monarchy in northern Europe, occupying the eastern portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bounded on the north and west by Norway, on the northeast by Finland, on the east by the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, and on the southwest by the Skagerrak, Kattegat, and Öresund straits. Sweden includes the islands of Gotland and Öland in the Baltic Sea. It is the fifth largest country in Europe. The area of Sweden is 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Stockholm is the country�s capital and largest city.

The extreme distance from north to south in Sweden is about 1,575 km (about 980 mi), and from east to west about 500 km (about 310 mi). The coastline totals about 3,220 km (about 2,000 mi) in length. Sweden may be divided into six topographical regions. In the northwestern section are extensions of the Kjølen Mountains, which form part of the boundary with Norway. The highest point in the range, and the highest point in Sweden, is atop Mount Kebnekaise (2,111 m/6,926 ft). To the east of the mountains is a long plateau, which slopes east to a coastal plain bordering the Gulf of Bothnia. The mountains of northern Sweden are the source of many rivers, which flow southeast to the Gulf of Bothnia. These rivers, which often have elongated lakes and a number of falls and rapids, constitute a valuable source of waterpower. The principal rivers are the Ångermanälven, Dalälven, Trysilelva, Ume älven, and Torneälven.

In south central Sweden is a lowland with many lakes, including the largest lakes in the country, Lake Vänern and Lake Vättern. An upland region, known as the Småland highlands, is located south of the lowland. The plains of Skåne occupy the southeastern tip of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The lowest elevation point is sea level along the coast.

Sweden is part of the Fennoscandian Shield, which extends over part of northern Europe. The rocks, except those in the northwest, are primarily ancient Precambrian granites, schists, and gneisses. Younger metamorphic rocks are characteristic of the northern part of the country. Sedimentary rocks are found in the southern Skåne plains and in the islands of Gotland and Öland. The present topography of Sweden was formed largely by a continental ice sheet, which receded about 8,000 years ago. The mountains, except for several of the highest peaks, were rounded by glaciation. The ice sheet scraped out deep valleys and created numerous glacial lakes. Ridges of rock, gravel, sand, and clay were deposited in many places by the retreating ice. Glacial seas left fertile marine clay soils in the south and in the central lake area. Some permanent ice fields still remain in the high mountain regions.

The climate is comparatively moderate, considering that Sweden is located at a very northern latitude. The principal moderating influences are the Gulf Stream and the prevailing westerly winds, which blow in from the relatively warm North Atlantic Ocean. In winter these influences are offset by cold air masses that sweep in from the east. The climate of northern Sweden is considerably more severe than that of the south primarily because it has higher elevations and because the mountains cut off the moderating marine influence. The average temperature in February, the coldest month, is below freezing throughout Sweden, with an average temperature range in Stockholm of -5� to -1�C (22� to 30�F), in Göteborg of -4� to 1�C (25� to 34�F), and in Piteå, in the northern part of the country, of -14� to -6�C (6� to 22�F). In July, the warmest month, the average temperature range is 13� to 22�C (56� to 71�F) in Stockholm, 13� to 21�C (56� to 69�F) in Göteborg, and 12� to 21�C (53� to 69�F) in Piteå. The proportion of daylight hours increases in the summer and decreases in the winter as the latitude becomes more northerly. In the one-seventh of Sweden above the Arctic Circle, daylight is continuous for about two months in the summer, and continuous darkness occurs for about two months in the winter.

Precipitation is relatively low throughout Sweden except for on the higher mountain slopes. In Stockholm the average annual precipitation is 540 mm (21 in); in Göteborg it is 790 mm (31 in). Rainfall is heaviest in the southwest and in the mountains along the Norwegian border. Most rain falls in the late summer. Heavy snows are common in central and northern Sweden.

The principal natural resources of Sweden are fertile farmland and forests that cover about two-thirds of the country. In addition, Sweden has large deposits of iron and other minerals and abundant sources of waterpower for the production of electricity.

Alpine and arctic vegetation prevail in northern Sweden. The highest mountain areas are barren of vegetation; the next highest regions are moorlands with various kinds of mosses and lichens. Below the moorlands is a zone of birch and willow trees, often dwarfed and stunted. The next lower, and largest, zone is covered with coniferous forests, primarily of spruce and Scotch pine. In the south, deciduous trees, including oak and beech, are found.

Roe deer and elk are plentiful in Sweden�s forests. Reindeer are common in the north, where they are herded by the Saami. Bears, lynx, and wolves are now quite rare. Lemmings are abundant in the upland moorlands. Various wild birds are plentiful, with many rare species protected in nature preserves.

Fish abound in the North and Baltic seas and in Sweden�s lakes and rivers. Principal marine varieties include cod, mackerel, and herring; freshwater varieties include pike, perch, and trout, as well as numerous other species popular with people who fish. Salmon are found in both fresh and salt water. Seals once inhabited the waters around Sweden, but in 1988 an outbreak of a virus destroyed as much as 65 percent of the seal population in the North and Baltic seas. In the same year, an increase in algae concentrations devastated Sweden�s west coast marine environment. These disasters, attributed to pollution, heightened ecological concerns in Sweden.

Most of Sweden�s cultivated land is in the south. Fertile marine clay soils lie along the southern coast, and underlying sedimentary limestones and shales, which help fertilize the soil, are found in the plains of Skåne. In the rest of the country, poorly developed podzolic soils, as well as large areas of exposed rock, predominate.

One of Sweden�s major environmental problems is acid rain, which degrades soil, damages buildings, acidifies waterways, and defoliates forests. The country has made great strides in reducing sources of acid rain within its own borders�Sweden has an ambitious environmental protection program and was among the first countries to introduce a carbon tax. Sweden also has a sulfur tax and has cut its sulfur dioxide emissions by more than two-thirds since the early 1970s. Most of the air pollution that results in acid rain in Sweden, however, originates from emissions abroad.

Nitrogen runoff from farms in Sweden has caused severe pollution and eutrophication, or buildup of nutrients, in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, as well as in many of the country�s lakes. As a result of eutrophication, algae growth has increased and animal life has declined.

Sweden is party to international treaties concerning air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands.

Sweden�s population is composed principally of Scandinavians of Germanic descent and a relatively small number of ethnic Finns. About 17,000 Saami live mainly in the northern part of the country. Sweden�s immigrant population is increasing rapidly, with approximately 500,000 aliens living in Sweden in the early 1990s. These included Finns, people from the former Yugoslavia, Iranians, Norwegians, Danes, Turks, Chileans, and others. Many came to Sweden as guest workers. Recently, increased numbers have entered Sweden to escape the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Sweden is second only to Germany in the number of refugees from that region.

The population of Sweden was estimated at 8,875,053 in 2001. This gives the country an overall population density of 20 persons per sq km (51 per sq mi). The great majority of the population lives in the southern half of Sweden, especially in the central lowlands, the plains of Skåne, and the coastal lowlands. Large areas of the northern mountains are sparsely inhabited. Some 83 percent of the population is classified as urban.

Sweden is divided into 21 counties: Stockholm, Uppsala, Södermanland; Östergötland, Jönköping, Kronoberg, Kalmar, Gotland, Blekinge, Skåne, Halland, Västra Götaland, Värmland, Örebro, Västmanland, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Västernorrland, Jämtland, Västerbotten, and Norrbotten. Each county has a governor and a state county administrative board. The governor, appointed by the central government, is chairman of the board; the board�s 14 members are elected by the county council. Each county except for Gotland has a county council elected by local voters. County councils are mainly responsible for overseeing health services.

Sweden is further divided into 286 municipalities. Municipal councils, elected by local voters, control local government and taxation.

The principal cities of Sweden include Stockholm, the capital and largest city, with a population (1998 estimate) of 736,113; Göteborg (459,593), an industrial center and seaport; and Malmö (254,904), a commercial center and seaport. Other major cities include Uppsala, Linköping, Örebro, Norrköping, and Västerås.

In the late 1990s, 86 percent of the Swedish people were Lutheran, members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. The largest other Protestant denominations in Sweden are the Pentecostal Movement, the Mission Covenant Church, the Salvation Army, Örebro Missionary Society, the Baptist Union of Sweden, Swedish Alliance Missionary Society, and Holiness Mission. Members of the Roman Catholic Church numbered about 163,000 in the late 1990s, and many of Sweden�s recent immigrants maintained adherence to the Orthodox Christian churches of their countries of origin. There were more than 100,000 Muslims and 20,000 Jews in the country in the mid-1990s.

See Swedish Language.

Organized higher education in Sweden dates from the late 15th century, when the first, and perhaps most influential, Swedish university was founded in 1477 in Uppsala. Other Swedish universities that received international recognition were founded at Lund (1666), Stockholm (1877), and Göteborg (1891). Additional important institutions of higher learning include the Royal Institute of Technology (1827), the Stockholm School of Economics (1909), and the Karolinska Institute (1810), a medical college that annually awards the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine; all are located in Stockholm. The Nobel Prizes are named for Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, who invented dynamite in 1867, and, at his death in 1896, endowed most of his fortune to fund the Nobel Prizes.

In 1842 education in Sweden was made free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 14. The school system consisted of infant schools (7 to 9 years old) and elementary schools (9 to 14 years old). Children who did not attend public schools were required to provide evidence of private education. The Education Act of 1950 fundamentally changed Swedish education by abandoning the traditional two-track (university preparation and vocational education) school system of Europe and instituting the comprehensive, unitary system typical of the United States. The goal of this law was to �bridge the old gaps between social classes� and to enable each individual to develop all potentialities. The success of this educational reform inspired similar reforms in other countries.

Legislation in 1950 and 1962 extended the period of compulsory education to nine years and provided for the introduction of nine-year comprehensive schools divided into lower, intermediate, and upper levels. This new system has been established throughout Sweden.

In the 1995 school year 666,100 students attended lower schools in Sweden, 829,300 were enrolled in intermediate schools, and 275,200 attended upper schools. Many types of vocational schools provide training for trades. Adult education is extensive. Including the outstanding universities in all its major cities, Sweden has 37 national institutions of higher education. Other institutions, principally �people�s colleges� providing adult education, are administered by municipal governments.

Sweden has developed a modern industrial culture based on natural resources, technical skills, and a sense of quality. The people have tended to maintain provincial traditions and customs because of the isolated location of the country. Swedish society and life are characterized by simplicity and even severity resulting from geographic and economic conditions. Over the centuries, however, Swedish traders have returned with ideas and products that have been assimilated into Swedish culture. In the 18th century French influence was especially important in modifying Swedish culture.

Sweden has made major contributions to art, design, literature, music, and motion pictures (for more information, see the Art and Music sections of this article). Modern Swedish crafts such as ceramics, furniture, glass, silver, stainless steel, and textiles have received international recognition for simple beauty, form, and functional design. Orrefors is a center noted for its artistry in making glassware.

Sweden has many libraries, including public and county libraries and research libraries connected with universities, institutes, and state museums. Among the largest libraries are those of the universities of Uppsala, Göteborg, Lund, and Stockholm; the Royal Library and the library of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, both in Stockholm; and the city libraries of Göteborg and Stockholm.

Most of Sweden�s large cities have museums. The best-known museum is the National Museum in Stockholm; it contains the principal art collection of Sweden. Other notable museums are the Skansen, a park with displays of rural life; the Contemporary Art Museum; the Vasa Museum; and the Swedish Museum of Natural History. Also of interest are the Göteborg Art Gallery and, in Lund, the Cultural History Museum.

Swedish art originated in the Bronze Age (1500-500 bc). Ornaments dating from this period reveal an independent artistic style. Sculpture in stone was created on the island of Gotland about ad 500. The arts, especially sculpture, flourished in connection with the construction of churches from about 1100 to 1350. Since the Middle Ages, Swedish art has often been profoundly influenced by European developments. Prominent Swedish artists of the 18th century are painters Carl Gustav Pilo and Alexander Roslin and sculptor Johan Tobias von Sergel. The significant artists of the 19th century include Carl Fredrik Hill and Ernst Josephson. Internationally recognized artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries are painters Anders Leonhard Zorn and Carl Larsson. Carl Milles was an acclaimed sculptor of the 20th century.

In architecture, although Sweden developed the medieval log cabin, which was introduced in the United States in the 17th century, major architectural advances were not made until the late 19th century. Since then, internationally noted architects have included Ragnar Östberg, Erik Gunnar Asplund, and Sven Gottfrid Markelius.

In motion pictures Swedish artists have won international recognition. Important directors include Ingmar Bergman, Lasse Hallström, Arne Edvard Sucksdorff, and Arne Mattsson. Cinematographer Sven Nykvist is known for his collaborations with Bergman, Hallström, and American director Woody Allen. Prominent Swedish film actors include Ingrid Bergman, Greta Garbo, Mai Zetterling (also a director), Max von Sydow, and Lena Olin.

In literature, playwright and writer August Strindberg is probably Sweden�s best-known figure. Swedish Nobel laureates in the field include novelist Selma Lagerlöf; novelist, poet, and playwright Pär Lagerkvist; and author Harry Martinson. Astrid Lindgren is known to children in many countries as the author of the Pippi Longstocking series of children�s novels. See Swedish Literature.

The greatest Swedish contribution to music has been in the field of song. Famous Swedish singers have included Jenny Lind, Christina Nilsson, Jussi Björling, and Birgit Nilsson. Swedish folk music reflects the natural surroundings and the remoteness of the country through the ages. In the 18th century, a period of great cultural activity, King Gustav III founded the Academy of Music, the Stockholm Opera, and the Royal Ballet. Swedish Italian ballerina Marie Taglioni was an important figure in dance in the 19th century. A Swedish composer who achieved international fame was symphonist Franz Berwald. Modern composers include Hugo Alfvén, whose music is based on Swedish folk songs; Hilding Rosenberg; and Karl-Birger Blomdahl. Sweden is also home to many popular musical groups and is the world�s third largest exporter of music.

Sweden has an urban industrialized economy based primarily on extensive forests, rich iron-ore deposits, and abundant waterpower resources. Although more than 90 percent of Swedish industry is privately owned, the government exercises substantial control over the economy to moderate economic fluctuations. The national budget in 1998 included revenues of $90.9 billion and expenditures of $99 billion. Although Sweden enjoys one of the world�s highest standards of living, the country has experienced a serious recession since 1991. The Swedish government has responded with austerity measures and a reassessment of its traditional commitment to full employment and the welfare state. Steps taken include a 10 percent reduction in civil service employment, cuts in social-welfare programs, and partial privatization of the state sector, including the telecommunications and electricity networks. In early 1991 the tax system was reformed, with income-tax reductions for all but the most highly paid, and an increase in taxes on goods and services. By the mid-1990s, both the budget deficit and unemployment increased again. More tax increases and cuts in government spending were implemented to reduce the deficit.

Sweden is nearly self-sufficient in agricultural products although only 7 percent of the land is cultivated.

Scientific farming, including intensive fertilization and mechanization, makes possible good crop yields despite poor soil, rugged topography, and a short growing season. Agriculture is intensively developed in the southern lowlands, especially in the fertile plains of Skåne.

Swedish farms vary in size from large estates to small farms. In recent years, many small farms have been combined into larger units. Most agricultural production is for domestic consumption. About 3 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. After World War II (1939-1945), dairying, traditionally important in Swedish agriculture, declined somewhat in relation to the production of grains and vegetables. The leading farm commodities remain livestock and livestock products, especially dairy items. The major crops are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, rapeseed, rye, and sugar beets. The livestock population includes 1.7 million cattle, 1.9 million hogs, 437,249 sheep, and 8.6 million poultry. Sweden is also a leading producer of fur pelts, particularly mink.

Sweden has the largest timber reserves in western Europe and is its largest producer of timber products. Forest products account for substantial portions of Sweden�s yearly industrial output and exports. Timber production in 1999 was 58.7 million cubic meters (2.1 billion cubic feet); about one-half of the logs are made into lumber, and the other half are used in making paper. The most productive lumbering areas are in the lower slopes of the northern highlands and in the Småland region. Timber-processing plants are concentrated along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia; some of the many rivers that flow into the gulf are used to supply the mills with power.

In 1997 Sweden�s fish catch totaled 364,115 metric tons. Herring made up about two-thirds of the annual catch; other fish caught include sprat, cod, trout, and mackerel. Göteborg is an important fishing port.

Mineral production is very important for both domestic use and foreign trade. Extensive high-grade iron-ore deposits are located in central and northern Sweden, notably around Kiruna and Malmberget. The country also contains an estimated 15 percent of the world�s uranium reserves. In 1999 mineral production included 11.5 million metric tons of iron ore, 300 metric tons of silver, 70,000 tons of copper, and 115,000 tons of lead. Zinc, gold, crude petroleum, and iron pyrites also were produced.

Manufacturing has become increasingly important in Sweden since the 1880s. The value of manufacturing has increased by more than 2 percent annually since the mid-1960s, and as the 1980s ended Sweden was one of the most industrialized countries of Europe. Manufacturing output decreased, however, during a persistent recession in the early 1990s. While facing increased competition for its manufactures, Sweden maintains the industrial advantages of high-quality domestic raw materials and skilled labor.

In the early 1990s about 18 percent of the workforce was employed in manufacturing. Most of the manufacturing plants were privately owned, and the majority were small. Sweden is a producer of high-quality steel; the annual output of crude steel was 4.3 million metric tons in the early 1990s. The principal manufactures by value of production in the early 1990s were transportation equipment, food products, paper, machinery, metal products, wood products, chemicals, electrical goods, and printed and published material. Important manufacturing centers include Stockholm, Göteborg, Linköping, Malmö, and Trollhättan.

Sweden is rich in waterpower resources, and 46 percent of its electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities. Some 45 percent is generated in nuclear power plants. After the 1986 Chernobyl� nuclear disaster in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (see Chernobyl� Accident), a decision was made to phase out nuclear power plants in Sweden by the early 21st century, but the country�s economic recession has so far forced postponement of this program. Total annual electricity output in 1999 was 146.6 billion kilowatt-hours. Because of stringent environmental legislation, the lack of further hydroelectric resources, and the government�s desire to phase out nuclear power, Sweden is developing alternative sources of energy.

The basic monetary unit of Sweden is the krona, or crown, which is divided into 100 öre (8.26 kronor equal U.S.$1; 1999 average). The central bank of Sweden is the Sveriges Riksbank, or Bank of Sweden (1668). It issues currency and determines monetary policy in cooperation with government officials. Sweden also has several commercial banks with many branches, in addition to savings banks and a few other types of banking and loan organizations. The main stock exchange is in Stockholm.

Foreign trade is very important, and Sweden is a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the European Union (EU; formerly the European Community), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 1999 exports earned $84.8 billion and imports cost $68.4 billion. Principal exports of Sweden include transportation equipment, primarily automobiles; paper and paper manufactures; chemicals; raw and processed forest products; electronic sound equipment; iron and steel; power-generating equipment; and ships. Leading purchasers are Germany, the United Kingdom, Norway, the United States, Denmark, and Finland. Chief imports are chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products, transportation equipment, food products, computers and office machines, and clothing and accessories. Leading suppliers are Germany, the United Kingdom, Norway, Denmark, the United States, Finland, and France.

Sweden�s transportation facilities are concentrated in the southern third of the country. Sweden has about 210,907 km (about 131,052 mi) of roads, of which 14,577 km (9,058 mi) are national roadways. In the early 1990s about 4 million motor vehicles, including about 3.6 million passenger cars, were in use. Railroad trackage totals 11,168 km (6,939 mi), virtually all of which is state owned; approximately three-quarters, including the principal rail lines, is electrified. Inland waterways include the Göta Canal, which connects the east and west coasts of Sweden; although the canal is important chiefly as a tourist route, it serves some local commerce. The Swedish merchant marine has a total displacement of 2.9 million gross registered tons. Stockholm and Göteborg are the leading seaports. Numerous ferries ply the waters between Sweden and its neighboring countries. In 1999 work was completed on a bridge and tunnel linking Sweden and Denmark. The 15-km (9.5-mi) link connects the Swedish city of Malmö with the Danish city of Copenhagen via an artificial island. The bridge and tunnel opened to traffic in July 2000.

The Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), operated jointly with Denmark and Norway, provides international service. Linjeflyg, a subsidiary of SAS, offers domestic flights within Sweden. The principal international airports are at Arlanda (near Stockholm), Landvetter (near Göteborg), and Sturup (near Malmö).

In 1996 Sweden�s 94 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of 3.9 million. Some of the influential dailies were Expressen, Aftonbladet, Dagens Nyheter, and Svenska Dagbladet, all published in Stockholm; Göteborgs-Posten and iDag, in Göteborg; Sydsvenska Dagbladet and Arbetet, in Malmö. The Swedish Telecommunications Administration provides telephone and telegraph services. Radio and television service is provided by three independent companies under a privatization plan promulgated in 1993. Operations are regulated by law and agreements with the government. In 1997 there were 932 radios and 519 television sets in use for every 1,000 residents.

In 1999 the employed Swedish labor force totaled 4.8 million persons. Of the workforce, about 26 percent were engaged in manufacturing and other industries, and 62 percent in providing community, social, economic, and personal services. About 9 percent were employed in the business and finance sector. About 3 percent worked in farming, forestry, and fishing. In 1989, about 81 percent of all Swedish workers were unionized, according to the International Labor Office�the largest percentage of unionized workers of any industrial nation. Working conditions and labor-management relations are generally excellent and strikes are rare.

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. It is governed under the constitution of 1975, which superseded the Constitutional Act of 1809 and the Parliament Act of 1866, as amended. The 1975 constitution eliminated the last vestiges of monarchical power in governing the country. The monarch remained head of state, an exclusively ceremonial post, but no longer was supreme commander of the armed forces and ceased to preside over cabinet meetings. All power was defined as emanating from the people. The constitution includes a lengthy bill of rights. Succession to the throne was opened to women in 1980.

In Sweden executive power is vested in the cabinet, which is responsible to the national legislature, the Riksdag. The cabinet is composed of a prime minister and department ministers and ministers without portfolio. In addition to the cabinet ministries some 50 central agencies administer government-operated services, such as the telephone system and the national railroad. These agencies, which are headed by government-appointed directors, are nominally subordinate to the cabinet ministries but actually function independently of them.

In 1971 the Riksdag, formerly a bicameral diet, was changed to a unicameral legislature with 350 popularly elected members; the 1975 constitution reduced the number of members to 349 to prevent tie votes. Members of the Riksdag are elected to terms of four years by the voters under a system of proportional representation. All citizens age 18 or older are eligible to vote.

The Swedish judiciary is entirely independent of the other branches of government and comprises a three-tier system of courts: the Supreme Court, six courts of appeal, and district and city courts. The Supreme Court is the court of final appeal in all cases and may also consider new evidence. The appeals courts, in addition to having appellate jurisdiction, are responsible for the administration of the court system in their areas and for the further training of judges. District and city courts are courts of first instance. They are presided over by judges who are assisted by a popularly elected panel, usually consisting of from three to five laypersons. Juries are used only in press libel suits.

A special feature of the Swedish judicial system, copied in recent years by other countries, is the official known as the ombudsman. This official�s duty is to oversee how the courts and administrators observe and apply the laws. An ombudsman may investigate complaints by any citizen and initiate investigations and can bring evidence of error or wrongdoing before a court. An ombudsman is appointed by the Riksdag for a term of four years; in the early 1990s Sweden had four such officials.

Each of the 24 counties (län) in Sweden is governed by an administrative board appointed by the central government, in conjunction with a popularly elected county council. Local government and taxation are provided for by the constitution. Towns, cities, and rural districts within the counties constitute communes and also have popularly elected councils.

The leading Swedish political groups are the Social Democratic Party, which won the largest number of seats in the Riksdag in the 1998 elections, and the Moderate Party. Other influential groups included the Left, Christian Democratic, Center, Liberal, and Green parties. There are also small extreme right-wing and left-wing parties.

Historically, Swedish social-welfare legislation has been extensive, ensuring that all citizens receive old-age pensions, health insurance, and workers� compensation disability benefits. An unemployment-insurance plan is subsidized largely by the government but administered by the trade unions. Other social-welfare provisions include subsidies to families who are raising children, maternity benefits, and government-subsidized low-rent housing. However, in response to the country�s recession of the early 1990s, the government has instituted reductions in the level and range of social-welfare programs.

The armed forces of Sweden are headed by a supreme commander and a defense staff that coordinates the activities of the army, navy, and air force. Between 7.5 and 17.5 months of military service is compulsory for men between 18 and 47 years of age. An important component of the country�s defense is the home guard, a volunteer service organized during World War II (1939-1945); the service has 125,000 members at present. In 1999 the armed forces included an army of 35,100, a navy of 9,200, and an air force of 8,400. In times of war, the armed forces can mobilize a reserve force of 570,000 people.

During Roman times the eastern half of the Scandinavian Peninsula was inhabited by two tribes of the Germanic peoples: the Suiones, or Swedes, in northern Svealand; and the Gothones, or Goths, in southern Gothia. These tribes, although united in religious beliefs, were generally at war with each other. Before the 10th century, details of Swedish history are obscure. In the first half of the 9th century Frankish missionaries began teaching Christianity, which slowly became established in the country. Olaf Skötkonung was the first Swedish king to become a Christian. From about ad 800, Swedish Vikings established colonies in other countries, especially Russia and Eastern Europe, and established trade routes. During the reign of Eric IX, from 1150 to 1160, Swedish power was strengthened. Eric invaded Finland and forced Christianity on those he conquered; during the subsequent two centuries Finland was completely subjugated by the Swedes. Eric was allegedly slain by a Danish claimant to his throne while he was attending mass, and he later became the patron saint of Sweden.

In the 13th and 14th centuries feudalism became a controlling influence in Sweden, and as the throne�s power waned, that of the wealthy aristocracy grew. In 1389 the Swedish nobles forced Albert of Mecklenburg to renounce the throne, which was given to Margaret I, queen of Denmark and Norway. In 1397 Margaret effected the Union of Kalmar, by which the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were united under a single sovereign.

The union, which endured for more than a century, was characterized by constant dissension and wars between the Danes and Swedes. In 1520, when rebellion threatened, King Christian II of Denmark and Norway invaded Sweden to enforce his authority. Having been crowned, however, he had many of his opponents executed. The mass murders provoked a rebellion in 1521, led by Gustav Vasa, who became administrator after the rebellion succeeded and, in 1523, king as Gustav I Vasa. Denmark, however, retained possession of the southern part of the peninsula. Under Gustav, Sweden became a hereditary monarchy in which the power of the nobles was circumscribed and that of the clergy subordinated to the state. Lutheranism was established as the state religion in the 1520s.

During the 16th century Sweden entered a period of expansion. The Reval district of Estonia put itself voluntarily under Swedish protection in 1561, and as a result of the Livonia War of 1557 to 1582, Sweden acquired all of Estonia from Poland, including the district of Narva. Gradually the kingdom became a power in the Baltic area, and its expansionist policies were furthered by Gustav II Adolph, considered the greatest Swedish king, who succeeded to the throne in 1611. At the beginning of his reign, Sweden was at war with Russia, and in 1617 Gustav ended the conflict with a treaty by which Sweden obtained eastern Karelia and Ingria. A war with Poland (1621-1629) gave Sweden all Livonia, which was, however, not formally renounced by Poland until 1660. In 1630 Gustav, as the champion of Protestantism, entered the Thirty Years� War. The king died in 1632, but his policies were continued and brilliantly fulfilled by his chancellor, Count Axel Oxenstierna, who directed the Swedish government during the minority of the monarch�s daughter, Christina. Christina came of age and was crowned in 1644.

By the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the Thirty Years� War, Sweden acquired a large part of Pomerania, the island of Rügen, Wismar, the sees of Bremen and Verden, and other German territory, which entitled the Swedish sovereign to three votes in the diet of the Holy Roman Empire. Sweden then became the greatest power in the Baltic area. In 1654 Queen Christina abdicated, naming her cousin Charles X Gustav as her successor; she lived the rest of her life in Rome. Charles, who ruled until 1660, declared war on Poland (the First Northern War, 1655-1660), overran that country, and by the Peace of Oliva in May 1660, Poland formally conceded Livonia to Sweden. Charles X invaded Denmark twice in 1658 and wrested from it the provinces in southern Sweden that Denmark had retained in the 16th century.

Charles�s son and successor, Charles XI, allied himself with King Louis XIV of France in the French wars of the late 17th century. Sweden, however, a small and not overly wealthy country, did not have the resources to implement such militarism despite its Baltic conquests. In 1675 the Swedes, as French allies, were severely defeated by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, at Fehrbellin. At the same time, Charles struck at fundamental Swedish liberties in a reorganization of the Swedish government, weakening the council of state and the Riksdag, and making himself an absolute monarch. In 1680 he confiscated all large estates. Sweden again became an efficient military state, but only temporarily.

Charles XII, son and successor to Charles XI, was a military genius. Not long after his accession, at the age of 15, he successfully engaged an aggressive coalition of Russia, Poland, and Denmark in the beginning of the Great Northern War (1700-1721). During the first years of this conflict Sweden brilliantly asserted its position as the great military power of the Baltic. In 1700 Charles successfully invaded northwestern Russia, and by 1706 he had defeated the Poles. While Charles was engaging Poland, however, Peter the Great of Russia was establishing his dominion on the Baltic coasts. In 1709 the Swedes were completely routed by Russia at the Battle of Poltava, marking the collapse of Sweden and its replacement by Russia as the dominant power in the Baltic. By the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt in 1721, Sweden lost much of its German territory and ceded Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia, and several important Baltic islands to Russia.

Charles XII had died in 1718, and was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleanora, conditional on her acceptance of a new constitution destroying the absolute monarchy and vesting the legislative power in a Riksdag of four estates (nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants). The executive power became the province of a so-called secret committee of the first three estates. Thus, the aristocracy had governmental control once again, which it kept for more than 50 years.

In 1771 Gustav III came to the throne and, availing himself of a general dissatisfaction with the high-handed policies of the aristocracy, managed to take over the government. He promulgated a new constitution and restored absolute monarchy. At first his policies were liberal, but after 1789, with the start of the French Revolution, he became a despot and was assassinated in 1792.

His son and successor, Gustav IV Adolph, was bitterly opposed to Napoleon of France, and in 1805 he joined the Third Coalition against him, composed of Britain, Sweden, Russia, and Austria. Russia deserted the coalition for an alliance with Napoleon in 1807 and a year later invaded Finland, menacing Sweden. Gustav was deposed by an army revolt in 1809. The Riksdag then formulated a new constitution, which remained in force until 1975, and in 1809 elected as king the ex-king�s uncle, Charles XIII. Sweden concluded two treaties, one with Russia in 1809, ceding most of Finland and the Åland Islands, and another with France in 1810, by which a pro-Napoleonic policy was adopted. Charles XIII was childless, and the Riksdag chose Marshal Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, prince of Pontecorvo and one of Napoleon�s generals, as crown prince, in an effort to conciliate Napoleon. The marshal accepted, and an act of settlement, fixing the succession in the Bernadotte dynasty, was enacted in 1810. Bernadotte almost immediately became the dominant influence in Swedish policy. Withdrawing his allegiance from France, he fought with the coalition against Napoleon in 1813 and 1814. In the latter year Denmark was forced to yield Norway to Sweden, receiving in exchange the Swedish possessions in Pomerania. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden no longer possessed territory in Germany. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, recognized the union of Norway with Sweden.

In 1818 Bernadotte succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV John. Although his reign of 1818 to 1844 was characterized by a conflict for control between the throne and the Riksdag, and, as a foreigner, he was not popular, Bernadotte was an able administrator, and the united kingdoms of Norway and Sweden made considerable progress materially, politically, and culturally. His successors, Oscar I, Charles XV, and Oscar II, were accepted as Swedes. Between 1864 and 1866 the constitution was materially revised; the Riksdag, although bicameral, then received a form close to its present one. Between 1867 and 1886, nearly half a million Swedes emigrated to America because of food and job shortages. The union with Norway began to show strain in the late 19th century, and in June 1905 the Norwegian legislature proclaimed its dissolution, an act ratified without strong opposition by the Swedish Riksdag. During the reign of Oscar II notable progress was made in social legislation, including factory laws, accident insurance and pension funds for workers, and limitation of working hours for women and children.

In 1907 Gustav V succeeded to the throne, and two years later constitutional amendments extended the voting franchise and inaugurated proportional representation as well as other reforms.

In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, Sweden declared its neutrality and subsequently entered an agreement with Norway and Denmark to defend the neutrality and protect the common economic interests of the Scandinavian countries. Sweden joined the League of Nations in 1920. Led by the great Swedish statesman Karl Hjalmar Branting, the Social Democratic Party became the leading force in Swedish politics. Socialist governments remained in power until 1928, enacting social reforms that made Sweden prominent in this regard. The Conservative Party was brought into office in 1928, but the coming of the worldwide economic and industrial depression shortly afterward restored the Social Democrats to office in 1932.

In the late 1930s, when war seemed imminent in Europe, military preparedness and national defense became a paramount question. The Swedish government proclaimed neutrality on the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Despite frequent border incidents and German attacks on Swedish shipping, the country maintained its neutral status throughout the war.

In July 1945, after the close of hostilities in Europe, the wartime coalition cabinet resigned and the Social Democrats, under Premier Per Albin Hansson, resumed full control of the government. Social Democratic leader Tage Erlander, formerly minister of education and church affairs, succeeded to the premiership in October 1946, after the death of Premier Hansson. The following month Sweden became the 54th member of the United Nations.

Sweden maintained a neutral attitude in the ensuing Cold War. In 1948 it joined the United States-sponsored European Recovery Program, along with the other Western European nations, but refused to become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, formed in 1949. Failing in efforts to form a Scandinavian defense bloc without ties to the East or West, Sweden began systematically to strengthen its defenses.

Important domestic events in Sweden were the death in 1950 of Gustav V, the accession of his eldest son as Gustav VI Adolph, the creation of a Social Democratic-Agrarian coalition government in 1951, and the development of strong inflationary pressures in the Swedish economy from 1951 to 1952. In the elections held in September 1956, the Social Democrat-Agrarian coalition remained in power despite a joint loss of 11 seats in the lower house of the Riksdag.

The conviction of many Swedish military leaders that Sweden would be unable to preserve its neutrality in the event of another general war prompted many Swedes to question the traditional Swedish policy of neutrality. In March 1957 a report issued by 12 Swedish defense experts recommended that the armed forces of Sweden be equipped with atomic arms. In April, Sweden, together with Denmark, Norway, and Finland, announced the intention of the four countries to sponsor a Scandinavian institute for atomic research in Copenhagen.

Conflicting proposals for financing an expanded plan of old-age pensions caused controversy in 1957. In a popular referendum held in October, the Social Democrats� proposal, which called for compulsory contributions and for a government guarantee of the value of the benefits against inflation, won a plurality but not a majority of the votes. Nevertheless, the Social Democrats pressed in parliament for enactment of their plan, and the Agrarians thereupon withdrew from the government coalition. A new government, again headed by Erlander and consisting wholly of Social Democrats, was formed late in October.

In April 1958 the United States agreed to grant $350,000 to Sweden to aid in the construction of a Swedish nuclear reactor. In the same month the Erlander government fell because of interparty disagreement on the pension plan, but elections in June returned him to power. Parliamentary approval of the pension plan was obtained on May 14, 1959. Later that year Sweden became a founding member of the European Free Trade Association. Elections in 1960 resulted in another Social Democratic victory, and Erlander remained prime minister. When he retired from his post in 1969, Olof Palme, former education minister, was named to succeed him. A constitutional revision effective in 1971 reorganized the legislature into a unicameral body and implemented a new electoral system. In 1973 Gustav VI Adolph died and was succeeded by his grandson, Carl XVI Gustaf. On January 1, 1975, a new constitution, dissolving the remaining power of the king, came into force.

Swedish opposition to the war in Vietnam damaged relations with the United States beginning in the late 1960s; many young U.S. opponents of the war received political asylum in Sweden. Criticism of United States military actions by Prime Minister Palme in 1972 brought U.S. Swedish diplomatic relations to the verge of severance until 1974.

Sweden weathered the world economic slump of 1974 and 1975 well, but it was troubled by a high inflation rate, growing foreign debts, and large budget deficits. In the September 1976 elections the Social Democrats, after 44 years in office, lost to a coalition of the Center, Conservative, and Liberal parties. In 1977 Prime Minister Thorbjörn Fälldin introduced austerity measures to dampen inflation and encourage sales of Swedish goods abroad. Fälldin�s government resigned over the issue of nuclear power generation in 1978, but he returned to the helm the following year after an interim minority Liberal government. In May 1980 there was a rare general strike that brought the country to a virtual standstill for 10 days. The following October the government survived a no-confidence motion by only one vote. In May 1981 thousands of white-collar workers went on strike as the government coalition split. Another general strike was averted, however, and Fälldin then formed a Center-Liberal minority government. The Social Democrats returned to power in the parliamentary elections of 1982 and retained their dominance after the 1985 elections. Palme resumed the position of prime minister in 1982; he was assassinated on February 28, 1986, in Stockholm. He was succeeded by Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson, who retained Palme�s cabinet and vowed to continue his predecessor�s policies. The Social Democrats held their comfortable majority in the 1988 elections, but Carlsson resigned in 1990 after the Riksdag rejected a proposal for a temporary freeze on wages, prices, and rents. He later formed a new government, and a modified austerity program, allowing some wage increases, was adopted.

In the September 1991 elections, however, the Social Democrats suffered a stunning upset, although they remained the largest party in the Riksdag, with 138 seats. Ingvar Carlsson resigned, and the leader of the Moderate Party, Carl Bildt, formed a coalition of the Moderate, Center, Liberal, and Christian Democrat parties. The new government began to accelerate deregulation of the economy, including the eventual privatization of 35 state-owned companies; large cuts in government spending, including reductions in welfare payments; and the removal of restrictions on foreign-majority-owned enterprises in Sweden.

The new coalition�s tenure was brief, however. In elections in September 1994, the Social Democrats returned to power, garnering just over 45 percent of the popular vote. The party better than recouped its losses from the previous election, winning a total of 161 out of the 349 seats in the Riksdag. After the elections, Ingvar Carlsson was asked to form a coalition government, but he opted instead for a minority government. The September elections were notable also because women made up half of the members of Carlsson�s cabinet and 41 percent of the Riksdag, the highest percentage of women lawmakers in the world. Carlsson resigned as prime minister and chair of the Social Democratic Party in March 1996. He was succeeded by Göran Persson, a moderate Social Democrat who had served as finance minister. Led by Persson, the Social Democrats maintained their hold on power in the 1998 elections.