Belgium (French Belgique; Dutch België), constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe, bounded on the north by The Netherlands and the North Sea, on the east by Germany and Luxembourg, and on the south and southwest by France. With The Netherlands and Luxembourg, Belgium forms the Low, or Benelux, Countries. It is about 280 km (about 175 mi) long, measured in a southeast-northwest direction, about 145 km (about 90 mi) wide, and is roughly triangular in shape. The area is 30,528 sq km (11,787 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Brussels.

Belgium has three main physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the central plateau, and the Ardennes highlands.

The coastal plain extends inland 16 to 48 km (10 to 30 mi) on the northwest. Along the North Sea is a low-lying area consisting mainly of sand dunes and polders. The polders, sections of land reclaimed from the sea and protected by dikes, were developed between the 13th and 15th centuries. Lying inland is a flat pastureland drained by canals. The coastal plain�s elevation ranges from sea level to about 20 m (65 ft).

The central plateau is a gently rolling, slightly elevated area, irrigated by many waterways and containing a number of wide, fertile valleys with a rich, alluvial soil. Caves, grottoes, and ravines are found in parts of this area.

The Ardennes highlands, a densely wooded plateau averaging 460 m (1,500 ft) in elevation, extends across southeastern Belgium and into northeastern France. Located here is Botrange, the highest peak in Belgium, with an elevation of 694 m (2,277 ft). The area is generally rocky and poorly suited to agriculture.

The chief rivers are the Schelde (Escaut) and the Meuse. Both rise in France and are for the most part navigable throughout Belgium. On the Schelde, the principal waterway of Belgium, are the ports of Antwerp, Brussels, and Ghent. The chief tributaries of the Schelde are the Lys, Dendre, Senne, and Rupel rivers. The Sambre and Ourthe rivers are the main tributaries of the Meuse.

The climate near the sea is humid and mild. Farther inland, away from the moderating maritime influences, a marked increase in the range of temperature occurs. In the Ardennes highlands hot summers alternate with cold winters. Heavy rains are confined almost exclusively to the highlands. Fog and drizzle are common, and April and November are particularly rainy months. In Brussels, located at the center of the nation, the average temperatures range from 0� to 5�C (32� to 41�F) in January and from 13� to 22�C (55� to 72�F) in July. In Oostende, on the coast, the average range is 1� to 5�C (34� to 42�F) in January and 14� to 20�C (56� to 69�F) in July. Rainfall in Brussels is uniformly spread throughout the year, with a yearly average of 820 mm (32 in); annual precipitation in Oostende averages 580 mm (23 in).

The natural resources of Belgium are almost entirely mineral. Coal was mined in abundance for many years, but most accessible supplies have been exhausted and many mines have closed since the late 1950s. Deposits of zinc, lead, copper, and manganese are also exploited but are of little commercial significance; some natural gas is also extracted.

Small animals, primarily fox, badger, pheasant, squirrel, weasel, marten, and hedgehog, are found in Belgium. Deer and wild boar are present in the Ardennes highlands. Abundant plants include the hyacinth, strawberry, goldenrod, periwinkle, foxglove, wild arum, and lily of the valley. Forest trees include oak, beech, elm, and stands of pine that have been planted as part of reforestation programs.

Belgium is heavily industrialized and experiences many of the environmental problems common to other industrialized nations. The country is a significant producer of greenhouse gases and industrial emissions that cause acid rain. Belgium�s air quality has improved, however, and industrial emissions have steadily decreased since the United Nations (UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulphur Protocols were implemented, beginning in the 1970s.

European Union (EU) directives expected to improve Belgium�s environmental conditions concern water treatment and water quality, both significant issues in such an industrial center. Before these directives were issued, the Meuse River, a major source of drinking water, had become polluted from steel production wastes. Other rivers were polluted with animal wastes and fertilizers. In 1995 the Flemish regional environmental minister attempted to restrict the widespread agricultural use of dung. His efforts were initially thwarted by a strong agricultural lobby, but the legislation has since passed.

Some areas of Belgium�s coastal lands were reclaimed and developed from the 13th to the 15th century. With only concrete dikes separating them from the sea, these lands are especially threatened by flooding.

Only 2.6 percent (1997) of Belgium�s land is protected in parks and other reserves. This is a small amount when compared with neighboring countries such as France (11.7 percent), The Netherlands (6.7 percent), and Germany (27 percent).

Belgium is party to international agreements concerning air and water pollution, biodiversity, ozone layer protection and climate control, endangered species, hazardous wastes, and wetlands.

The people of Belgium are primarily of two ethnic groups, the Flemings (Teutonic origin) and the Walloons (Celtic origin, probably with an admixture of Alpine elements). The most distinguishing characteristic of these two groups is language. The Flemings speak Dutch (often referred to by its historic regional name, Flemish; see Flemish Language), and the Walloons speak French. The predominantly Flemish provinces are in the northern half of Belgium, called Flanders (Flemish Region), and the predominantly Walloon provinces are in the southern half, called Wallonia. The capital of Brussels, an enclave within the Flanders region, is mixed. In 1993 these three ethnolinguistic areas became official federal regions.

The population of Belgium is 10,258,762 (2001 estimate). Nearly 60 percent live in the Flanders region. The overall population density, one of the highest in Europe, is 336 persons per sq km (870 per sq mi). The largest concentrations were in the Brussels, Antwerp, Liège, and Ghent (Gent) industrial areas, as well as in the narrow industrial region between Mons and Charleroi. In recent decades the Limbourg city region has increased in population because of industrial expansion in that area. Almost 10 percent of all Belgians live in Brussels, which is also home to vast numbers of foreign guest workers. Some 97 percent of the population is classified as urban.

Belgium is divided into the three federal regions of Brussels (population, 2000 estimate, 959,318), Flanders (5,940,251), and Wallonia (3,339,516). These regions are further subdivided into the ten provinces of Antwerpen, Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant, East Flanders, Hainaut, Liège, Limbourg, Luxembourg, Namur, and West Flanders, and into nearly 600 communes (administrative districts). The chief cities and their 1999 populations are Brussels (954,460), Antwerp (447,632), Ghent (224,074), Charleroi (202,020), and Liège (187,538).

In 1963 a law was passed establishing three official languages within Belgium: Dutch was recognized as the official language in the north, French in the south, and German along the eastern border. In the city and suburbs of Brussels, both French and Dutch are officially recognized, although French speakers are the larger group. In the country as a whole, strictly Dutch speakers make up about 56 percent, and French speakers 32 percent of the population. Only 1 percent of the people speak German, while some 11 percent speak more than one language. In 1971 a constitutional change was enacted giving political recognition to these three linguistic communities, providing cultural autonomy for them, and also revising the administrative status of Brussels.

About three-quarters of the Belgian population is Roman Catholic. Religious liberty is guaranteed, and part of the stipend for the ministers of all faiths is paid by the government. Other religions practiced within the country include a number of Protestant denominations, Judaism, and Islam.

Although educational freedom was provided by the constitution of 1831, the first law for public elementary education was not passed until 1842. In 1914 compulsory attendance was enacted for children between the ages of 6 and 14; compulsory schooling now extends to age 18. Since 1959 the education system has included state secular schools and private Roman Catholic schools. Educational controversies involving language and religion that arose in Belgium in the 19th century have continued to the present day. Almost the entire adult population is literate.

The oldest Belgian university dates from the Middle Ages. The Catholic University of Leuven, since 1970 divided into independent French- and Dutch-speaking universities, was founded under religious auspices in 1425. The universities of Ghent and Liège were founded in 1817 during the period of Dutch rule, and the Free University of Brussels was opened in 1834 under an enactment by the newly formed Belgian government. Ghent has a Dutch-speaking faculty, Liège a French-speaking one. In 1965 state universities opened in the cities of Mons and Antwerp. In 1970 the Free University of Brussels became two independent institutions, one teaching in Dutch, the other in French.

Royal academies of fine arts and royal conservatories of music are maintained in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and Mons. State agricultural institutes are maintained in Ghent and Gembloux. In the mid-1990s the total enrollment at the universities and other institutions of higher education exceeded 322,300.

Festivals play an important part in Belgian life. One of the most famous festivals is the three-day carnival at Binche, near Mons, held just before Lent. During the carnival, noisemaking and dancing are led by �Gilles,� men dressed in high, plumed hats and bright costumes. Another famous pageant is the Procession of the Holy Blood, held in Brugge in May. December 6 commemorates Saint Nicholas�s Day, an important children�s holiday.

General and specialized libraries are located in all the principal cities. The national library and main reference collection is the Bibliothèque Royale Albert I (1837) in Brussels, with some 3 million volumes. Large libraries are maintained by the universities of Ghent, Liège, and Leuven.

The Royal Museum for Fine Arts (1890) in Antwerp is noted for its collection of paintings by the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens. The Royal Museum of Fine Arts of Belgium (1830), located in Brussels, has a collection of artworks of many periods, a concert hall, and a cinema.

The National Theater (1945) in Brussels is supported by state subsidies. Belgium has contributed to both Flemish and French literature. Among the outstanding authors of the country are Philippe de Comines and Jean Froissart, who wrote in French during the Middle Ages. The works of Charles de Coster and Émile Verhaeren, both of whom wrote in French, and of Hendrik Conscience, who developed the Flemish novel, were popular during the 19th century. Poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck, who wrote in French, won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. See Flemish Literature; French Literature.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, northern Europe was one of the centers of the Renaissance. Flemish painters Hubert van Eyck and Jan van Eyck, Hieronymus Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were among the outstanding artists of this period. Dominant in the 17th century were Rubens and Sir Anthony van Dyck, who are regarded by many as two of the greatest Flemish painters. Among 20th-century painters and graphic artists of international fame are James Ensor, Paul Delvaux, and René Magritte. Belgian architect Victor Horta was one of the originators of the art nouveau style of architecture, which had an important influence on European architects of the 20th century. Contemporary Belgian architecture is represented by the designs of Henry van de Velde.

Although the service economy is growing rapidly in Belgium, the country remains heavily industrialized, importing great quantities of raw materials that are processed mainly for export. Such industry gives Belgium one of the highest gross domestic products in the world, despite its relatively small population. With about three-quarters of exports going to other European Union (EU) countries, Belgium�s economy is dependent upon its neighbors and the nation is a strong proponent of integrating European economies. In the early 1990s a growing budget deficit, combined with high unemployment rates, hindered Belgium�s overall economic growth. To reduce its deficit, the government initiated an austerity program that cut spending while raising taxes, as well as beginning a program to transfer some state-owned enterprises to the private sector. The budget in 1998 anticipated revenues of $109.5 billion and expenditures of $114.4 billion. Gross domestic product in 1999 totaled $248.4 billion.

Farming engages 3 percent of the total labor force and produces sufficient quantities to make Belgium a net food exporter. About two-thirds of the farms are intensively cultivated units of less than 10 hectares (25 acres). Some 25 percent of the country is under cultivation. In 2000 the leading crops were sugar beets (7.1 million metric tons), potatoes (3 million), wheat (1.6 million), and barley (370,000). Other important crops include fruits, tomatoes, and flax. Livestock and dairy farming are major agricultural industries. In 2000 the livestock population of Belgium numbered some 7.3 million pigs, 3.2 million cattle, 155,000 sheep, and 67,000 horses.

Forests cover 22 percent of the area of Belgium, and wooded areas are used primarily for recreational purposes. In recent years, stands of conifers have been planted, and forestry activity has increased; however, timber is still imported for the country�s paper industry.

The main fishing port of Belgium is Oostende. The fishing fleet exploits the North Atlantic Ocean fisheries from the North Sea to Iceland. The total annual catch in 1997 amounted to 31,346 metric tons; most of it consisted of plaice, sole, cod, and skate.

Belgium has very limited mineral resources. Coal was the chief mining product for much of the 20th century, but deposits were severely depleted by the 1950s. In the 1980s many of the mines were closed, and the last remaining coal mine was shut down in 1992. Coal and oil must now be imported for steelmaking and other industries.

Belgium is one of the most highly industrialized countries of Europe, largely because of its geographical location and transport facilities. Industrial production increased steadily after World War II (1939-1945) but began to decrease in the 1950s. The establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 and the introduction by the government of an investment-incentive program resulted in a surge in Belgian industry. However, shifts in the world economic picture have brought about a decline in industrial development in Belgium, and in 1998 manufacturing accounted for only 18 percent of total economic activity. Belgium is a major producer of iron and steel, and more than half the total output is exported. About 10.3 million metric tons of crude steel were produced annually in the early 1990s.

The textile industry, dating from the Middle Ages, produces cottons, woolens, linens, and textiles of synthetic fibers. With the exception of flax, all raw materials are imported. Centers of the textile industry are Brugge, Brussels, Limbourg, Ghent, Liège, Kortrijk, and Mechelen. In the early 1990s about 51,900 metric tons of cotton fabrics, 31,900 metric tons of wool fabrics, and 37,100 metric tons of rayon and acetate fabrics were produced annually. Carpet making is an important industry in Saint-Nicolas; Brussels and Brugge are noted for the manufacture of lace and damask.

The Belgian chemical industry leads the world in the production of cobalt and radium salts and also ranks high in the production of fertilizers and plastics. Pharmaceuticals, photographic supplies, glassware, furniture, paper and cartons, and cement are also important manufactures.

The nonferrous-metals industry, supplied by raw materials from Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC, formerly Zaire), furnishes the metallurgical, chemical, and other industries with a wide variety of metals, including copper, zinc, lead, platinum, germanium, and uranium. The bulk of the metal-manufacturing industry is engaged in the production of heavy machinery, structural steelwork, and industrial equipment. Other important industries are shipbuilding, which is centered in Antwerp, and the manufacture of railroad equipment. The diamond-cutting industry, also centered in Antwerp, is a main source of industrial diamonds.

Belgium�s 7 nuclear power plants are the main source of electricity, supplying 56 percent of the country�s electric power. With the decline of the coal-mining industry, Belgium has been forced to rely more heavily on imported coal, petroleum, and natural gas. In the late 1980s environmental concerns about nuclear power led to the exploration of alternative energy sources, such as solar power, biomass, and geothermal technologies; a gas-powered generator was also constructed. Total electric power production was 80 billion kilowatt-hours in 1999.

The monetary unit of Belgium is the single currency of the European Union (EU), the euro (1.07 euros equal U.S. $1; 1999 average). Belgium is among 12 EU member states to adopt the euro. The euro was introduced on January 1, 1999, for electronic transfers and accounting purposes only, and Belgium�s national currency, the Belgian franc, was used for other purposes. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated coins and bills went into circulation, and the Belgian franc ceased to be legal tender.

As a participant in the single currency, Belgium must follow economic policies established by the European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is responsible for all EU monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and regulating the money supply. On January 1, 1999, control over Belgian monetary policy was transferred from the Belgian central bank, the National Bank of Belgium, to the ECB. The National Bank of Belgium joined the national banks of the other EU countries that adopted the euro as part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).

The foreign trade of Belgium and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is conducted jointly. The two countries formed a customs and currency union in 1922. In 1999 Belgo-Luxembourg exports were valued at $176 billion. Principal commodities were automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and nonferrous metals. Annual imports in 1999 had a value of $161 billion. Principal commodities were food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. Belgium�s major trading partners were Germany, The Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States, and Spain. Belgium became a member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. Six years later, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed two treaties creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1967 the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom merged to form the European Community, now the European Union, with headquarters in Brussels.

The chief access to the sea for Belgian shipping is via the Schelde and Meuse estuaries, which lie within the territory of The Netherlands. Antwerp, on the Schelde River, although some 84 km (52 mi) from the sea, is one of the busiest ports in the world. The rivers of Belgium are connected by an important system of canals. The aggregate length of canals and navigable rivers totals about 1,520 km (about 940 mi). Supplementing the waterways is a system of 145,850 km (90,627 mi) of roads. There are 3,410 km (2,119 mi) of railroad track, which are state owned. No other country in the world has more railroad trackage per unit area. Sabena, the Belgian national airline, operates routes to major cities throughout the world.

French- and Dutch-language broadcast services are provided by the government, with costs defrayed through annual license fees on receiving sets; commercial broadcasting is also permitted. Many foreign broadcasts are also received. In 1997 there were 797 licensed radios and 466 licensed televisions for every 1,000 residents. Belgium has 502 telephone mainlines for every 1,000 people. Some 30 daily newspapers are published.

The total labor force in 1999 numbered 4.3 million workers. Services employ 67 percent of the workers. About 2.6 million workers belong to three trade union groups: the General Federation of Labor, the Federation of Christian Trade Unions, and the General Federation of Liberal Trade Unions.

Belgium is a constitutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy. Succession to the throne is determined by primogeniture. The present ruler is King Albert II. The Belgian constitution was promulgated in 1831 and revised in 1893, 1921, 1970, 1971, 1980, 1989, and 1993. The reforms of the 1970s and afterward gradually transformed Belgium into a federal state, giving the majority of essential governmental powers to the three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels.

Executive power is vested in the king, who appoints the prime minister, cabinet ministers, and judges. The king is commander in chief of the armed forces and, with the approval of parliament, has the power to declare war and conclude treaties. The rights of the king, according to the constitution, include convening and dissolving parliament, conferring titles of nobility, and granting pardons. All royal acts, however, must be countersigned by a minister, who in turn assumes responsibility for those acts before parliament. Inasmuch as the ministers are responsible to parliament, the king must choose a cabinet that represents a majority in parliament. Cabinets are generally multiparty coalitions.

Under constitutional changes that took effect with the parliamentary elections of 1995, both houses of the Belgian parliament were reduced in size. The Senate was scaled back from 184 members to 71, while the Chamber of Representatives dropped from 212 members to 150. All members of the Chamber of Representatives are directly elected, while the Senate�s membership is elected through a combination of direct and indirect methods. All citizens more than 18 years of age are required to vote in parliamentary elections and may be fined for not doing so.

The three major political alliances, each consisting of Dutch- and French-speaking units, are the Christian Democrat parties (1945), the Socialist parties (1885), and the Liberal parties, including the Flemish Liberals and Democrats-Citizens� Party (Dutch, 1961) and the Liberal Reformation Party (French, 1979). There are many minor parties.

Belgium has devised a two-tiered system of regional government to address political and cultural differences. Each of the three federal regions elects its own council, which is responsible for territorial matters such as planning, transportation, water, energy, municipalities, and regional development. There are also independent language councils for the Dutch-, French-, and German-speaking communities. These councils are in charge of education, health care, and communications (such as broadcasting) for the communities. Each of the ten provinces has a council of 50 to 90 members who are chosen by direct vote. The provinces are subdivided into administrative districts, often based in cities and towns, called communes. Each commune is administered by a burgomaster appointed by the king. The town council, directly elected to six-year terms, advises the king on this appointment. The council elects an executive body called the board of aldermen. Local government on all levels possesses a large degree of autonomy, a tradition that originated in feudal times.

The Belgian constitution provides for an independent judiciary with powers equal to those of the executive and legislative departments. The highest tribunals are the five courts of appeal, which sit at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and Mons; the five labor courts; and the Supreme Court of Justice. Cases are referred to the courts of appeal by the courts of assize, which review both civil and criminal matters. In the assize courts 12 jurors decide all cases by majority vote. A special court was established in 1989 to resolve constitutional conflicts arising from the transfer of power from the central government to regional authorities.

Health and hospital services are the responsibility of public assistance commissions located in each town. The commissions pay for relief patients in private hospitals, administer public hospitals, and organize nursing services and clinics.

Social security, based on a law passed in 1944, applies to all workers subject to employment contracts. The Central National Office of Social Security collects from employers and employees all contributions for family allowances, health insurance, old-age insurance, holidays, and unemployment insurance and distributes the funds to the respective administrative divisions. This comprehensive welfare system has resulted in great improvements in public health and economic stability of the populace, but it has also exacerbated Belgium�s budget deficit.

Belgium is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which has its headquarters in Brussels. Recruitment in Belgium�s armed forces is made by voluntary enlistment. Military training methods and equipment are coordinated with those of The Netherlands under an agreement of 1948. The Belgian armed forces, which include a navy, army, and air force, stood at 39,250 in 1999. Large force reductions took place in the 1990s.

Belgium derives its name from the Belgae, an ancient Celtic tribe. The Roman region of Gallia Belgica (Belgian Gaul) included modern Belgium, northern France, The Netherlands, and part of Switzerland. Rome�s successor in western Europe was the kingdom of the Franks, which originated in Belgian Gaul and expanded into Germany, eventually extending from the Pyrenees Mountains eastward across the Alps and southward as far as Rome itself. The Franks were led by Charlemagne, who united all of western Europe through conquest during his reign from 768 to 814. When the Frankish realm was partitioned in 843, Belgium was incorporated in the duchy of Lorraine, which was part of Francia Orientalis (the East Frankish Kingdom, or Germany). In the extreme west of this realm arose the county of Flanders, which was a fief of the kings of France. In 1384 Flanders was united with Burgundy, and by the mid-15th century the dukes of Burgundy ruled the greater part of the Belgian and Dutch Netherlands. While owing allegiance to the French crown, Burgundy�s aim was to found a powerful state between France and Germany. This effort was disrupted by the death in 1477 of the last Burgundian ruler, Charles the Bold.

By the marriage in 1477 of Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, to the German prince Maximilian (later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I), all of the rich Burgundian realm except the duchy itself passed to the control of the Habsburg family. Maximilian�s grandson, Charles, inherited The Netherlands (which included present-day Belgium) in 1506. Charles ascended the throne of Spain in 1516 and later became Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In 1549 he decreed that The Netherlands be formally joined to the possessions of Spain.

When Philip II of Spain, Charles�s successor, tried to suppress Protestantism and forbade all trade between his subjects and the outside world, he provoked a rebellion in The Netherlands that began in 1566. This upheaval was partly a religious and economic struggle and partly an attempt to preserve local traditions of self-government. Spanish armies were defeated, but the strife between the predominantly Catholic south and the Protestant north continued. In 1581 seven northern provinces (Gelderland, Friesland, Holland, Groningen, Overijssel, Utrecht, and Zeeland) declared their independence as the United Provinces of The Netherlands, while the southern provinces (Belgium) remained loyal to Spain.

Philip II continued to pursue reconquest of the north without success. In 1609, with neither side capable of a decisive victory, Philip III of Spain signed a 12-year truce with the rebels. By the time this accord expired, the Thirty Years' War was raging, and the Spanish Netherlands was once again a battleground. In 1635 the Dutch and the French joined forces to divide the Spanish Netherlands, but still could not dislodge the Spaniards. A succession of Franco-Dutch victories finally forced the Spanish king, Philip IV, to accept a separate peace with the Dutch in 1648. The south, present-day Belgium and Luxembourg, remained a Spanish domain. By the Treaty of Münster, the Dutch gained some territory on their southern border, notably Maastricht, and Spain agreed to close off shipping from the Schelde River, which flowed through Dutch territory but which was Antwerp�s sole outlet to the sea. The great port city, a center of commerce, thus entered a period of decline.

France, with a growing coalition of European powers, continued the war with Spain. Throughout his long reign the French king, Louis XIV, refused to abandon his quest for the Spanish Netherlands. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, France gained several frontier areas, and through subsequent conquests won possession of additional towns. The Spanish Netherlands became an important pawn in the next major European conflict, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). A settlement concluded at Utrecht in 1713 gave France part of Flanders, including Dunkerque and Lille. The bulk of the territory, however, became the Austrian Netherlands, with a stipulation that its fortresses on the French border be garrisoned by the Dutch.

During the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744, the country was occupied by the French, but it was restored to Austria by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Except for this invasion, Belgium�s Austrian era was initially peaceful. This tranquillity was disrupted in 1781 when the Austrian emperor, Joseph II, decided to raze the border fortresses and reopen the Schelde estuary. The Dutch mounted an effective blockade and again closed the river to trade. Then, in 1787, as part of his effort to centralize the administration of the far-flung Habsburg domains, Joseph abolished provincial autonomy in the Austrian Netherlands. The loss of local control led to a general uprising, which coincided with the outbreak of the French Revolution. Most of the Austrian garrisons were forced to capitulate, and on January 11, 1790, a Belgian republic was proclaimed. Quarrels between social and religious factions shook the new state from the outset, and within a year of Joseph�s death in 1790, his successor, Leopold II, reestablished control. A conciliatory and enlightened ruler, he revoked his predecessor�s decrees, but the new regime won little popular support. After Leopold was succeeded by Francis II in 1792, Austria became embroiled in war with the revolutionary government of France. Belgium was twice occupied by the French army, and the country was formally ceded to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.

The regime installed by the French was generally unpopular, but Belgium profited from French rule. It expanded in area after France conquered the prosperous city of Liège and annexed it to Belgian territory. Economically, after the French opened the Schelde River to shipping, Antwerp�s trade revived. New markets were also opened for local industry.

In 1814 the country was occupied by armies of the nations ranged against Napoleon Bonaparte. The next year the Battle of Waterloo, the last great battle of the Napoleonic Wars, was fought on Belgian soil.

The peace settlement adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 again united Belgium and The Netherlands, this time under a Dutch king, William I. Catholic Belgium, however, did not want a Protestant ruler, even though the country prospered under the Dutch. The outbreak of a revolution in France in July 1830 inspired a Belgian uprising in August. Dutch troops were driven from Brussels, and on October 4 a unique coalition of Catholics and Liberals proclaimed Belgian independence. The great powers�Austria, France, Britain, Prussia, and Russia�accepted Belgian independence, and the Dutch were unable to overcome such a formidable group.

The Belgians drew up a constitution providing for a bicameral legislature elected by male property owners and a king whose executive acts had to be countersigned by a responsible minister. They chose as their monarch Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He was a model constitutional monarch whose political skills enabled him to wield considerable power at home, and to become an influential figure among Europe�s rulers. The Dutch finally agreed to recognize Belgium in 1839 and a peace treaty was signed. In the settlement, half of Luxembourg became a Belgian province, while the Dutch were awarded nominal control of the remainder of the Grand Duchy, as well as Limbourg east of the Meuse River. In its most important provision, the European powers confirmed Belgium as an �independent and perpetually neutral state.�

Even after the internal alliance of Catholics and anticlerical Liberals disintegrated, Belgian constitutionalism survived. The economic decline that followed the separation from Dutch markets was halted by Europe�s first national program of railway construction, which connected all major Belgian towns by 1840. Belgium was the first country in continental Europe to industrialize, and had become politically and economically viable by 1865, when Leopold I died and was succeeded by his son.

Under Leopold II, Belgium faced many domestic problems. Liberals and Catholics fought over control of education, finally agreeing to let local governments decide whether or not to subsidize parochial schools. By the 1880s industrialization and population density�the greatest in Europe�had produced appalling living conditions in the cities. As the rural labor force shrank and the number of people engaged in industry tripled, the government enacted legislation to improve housing and working conditions. The workers, who still could not vote, began organizing to obtain political equality. An 1893 general strike forced parliament to institute universal adult male suffrage, modified to give more than one vote to university graduates, men over age 50, and property owners.

Another domestic problem was the lack of a common language. The country�s inhabitants were divided between Dutch-speaking Flemings in Antwerp, East and West Flanders, and Limbourg, and French-speaking Walloons in the remaining provinces; the province of Brabant, which included Brussels, contained speakers of both languages. Flemings outnumbered Walloons, but French was the language of the upper classes who controlled much of Belgium�s wealth. Thus, Walloon interests were disproportionately represented in the government, and only the small segment of the Flemish who were bilingual could participate equally. The expansion of suffrage began to redress this imbalance, forcing the government to accord equality to both languages when transacting official business.

Early in his reign Leopold II personally financed an expedition up the Congo River in Africa and at the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884 and 1885 he was recognized as sovereign of the Congo Free State. After 1900, however, reports of mistreatment of the native Africans outraged Belgian public opinion and led to legislation in 1908 transferring control of this royal enterprise to the state.

As the outbreak of war seemed imminent in Europe, Belgium�s neutral status caused a domestic controversy over the military budget. Advocates of preparedness opposed those who believed that the nation�s neutrality rendered most armaments unnecessary. In 1909, when Albert ascended the throne, he warned that the army was not strong enough to defend the country. The Catholic-led government used an electoral victory in 1912 to increase draft quotas, over the opposition of Liberals and Socialists.

On August 4, 1914, one week after the war began, German troops crossed the frontier into Belgium, ignoring its neutral status. The government resisted invasion and appealed to France, Britain, and Russia for aid. The Belgian army put up a heroic defense against overpowering forces; for four years its troops held on to a sliver of Belgian territory between the Yser River and the French border. The Germans, meanwhile, carried on a ruthless occupation of Belgium, confiscating property and deporting civilians. Although they attempted to capitalize on language divisions by establishing separate Flemish and Walloon administrations, only a small minority of Flemings collaborated with the invaders. A million Belgians fled the country. As the war dragged on, more than 80,000 soldiers and civilians died.

The major Allied offensive that began on September 28, 1918, liberated the entire Belgian coast and led the Germans to agree to an armistice and to withdrawal on the Allies� terms. The shooting war was finally over. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded Eupen-et-Malmédy, and Moresnet to Belgium, adding 989.3 sq km (382 sq mi) and some 64,500 inhabitants to the kingdom.

Belgium was faced with the task of rebuilding the devastated areas. Although the damage was enormous, the country made a remarkable recovery. The introduction of unqualified adult male suffrage after the war increased the following of the Socialists, who now supplanted the Liberals as the major political rival of the Catholics. Meanwhile, Belgium abandoned neutrality and in 1920 signed a military alliance with France. In 1925 it became a party to the Locarno treaties, in which Britain, France, Germany, and Italy affirmed Belgium�s territorial inviolability.

In 1936, after France failed to oppose German remilitarization of the Rhineland, Belgium again returned to neutrality with the understanding that Britain and France would assist in its defense against foreign aggression. Nevertheless, Belgium was attacked for a second time by Germany on May 10, 1940. Without warning or ultimatum, Belgian airfields, railroad stations, and communications centers were bombed by German planes, and German armored units rolled across the border. The army and the French and British troops that came to Belgium�s aid were overwhelmed by the superior might of the invading forces. By May 26 the Allies were pushed into a narrow beachhead around Dunkerque, France, near the Belgian border. King Leopold III surrendered his remaining forces unconditionally on May 28 and was taken prisoner. The Belgian cabinet, which had fled to Paris, refused to acknowledge defeat, declaring the king�s surrender �illegal and unconstitutional.� On May 30 the ministers voted to divest the king of all powers and of the right to rule, a decision supported by the Belgian parliament. After the fall of France, the Belgian government moved to London; it returned to Brussels on September 8, 1944. Later that month parliament elected Leopold�s brother, Prince Charles, as regent.

Although Belgium was in better economic condition after World War II than after World War I, it was politically disorganized because of a conflict between the Christian Democrat parties and the coalition of Liberals, Socialists, and Communists. Intensifying the political struggle was the question concerning King Leopold, who had remained in Austria awaiting determination of his future. Despite pressure from the Christian Democrat parties (now strengthened by the enfranchisement of women), which favored the return of the king, the Belgian parliament in the summer of 1945 extended indefinitely the regency of Prince Charles, virtually exiling the king because of his alleged defeatism in 1940. While the struggle for political control continued, Belgium regained much of its former position as one of the world�s great trading nations.

Belgium joined the United Nations (UN) as a charter member on June 26, 1945, and gave consistent support to the other Western member nations during the so-called Cold War with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the states within the Soviet sphere of influence. Belgium was similarly cooperative toward the efforts of the democratic countries to accomplish economic recovery and to erect safeguards against Communist aggression. In April 1949 Belgium joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

On March 12, 1950, after more than a year of successive governmental crises brought on by the controversy over the king, the Belgian electorate went to the polls in an advisory plebiscite on the question of Leopold�s return. The return of the king from exile was favored by 57.6 percent of the voters. On July 20 the Belgian parliament ratified popular sentiment. During the following week strikes, demonstrations, and riots occurred in many urban areas of the country, creating grave possibilities of a civil war. On August 1, after consultations with government and political leaders, Leopold agreed to assign his royal prerogatives to his son, Crown Prince Baudouin, and to abdicate the following year, when his son attained his majority. Leopold abdicated on July 16, 1951, and Baudouin was proclaimed king the next day.

The 1950s were marked by the concentrated effort of European leaders to effect a politico-economic union of the Western European nations. Taking an active role in this movement, Belgium, along with France, West Germany (now part of the Federal Republic of Germany), Luxembourg, Italy, and The Netherlands, became a charter member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952. When France refused to ratify the treaty establishing the European Defense Community in 1954, Belgian Foreign Minister Paul Henri Spaak initiated the second �launching of Europe.� His efforts were instrumental in the founding in 1957 of the European Economic Community (EEC). Brussels became the seat of its governing commission and much of its bureaucracy, reflecting the key role that Spaak played in shaping the new European order. That same year the nation became a member of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1967 the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom merged to form the European Community, now called the European Union.

In 1960 uprisings in the Belgian Congo forced Belgium to withdraw from its African empire. On June 30, 1960, King Baudouin proclaimed the independence of the colony (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC). In 1962 the Belgian-administered UN trust territory of Ruanda-Urundi achieved independence as two states, Rwanda and Burundi.

Within Belgium, the long-standing rivalry between Flemings and Walloons frequently erupted into riots during the 1960s. A government settlement effected in September 1963 changed the official language boundaries, but the problem was not that easily solved. In January 1968 clashes between Walloons and Flemings led to the collapse of the government. The Christian Democrat leader Gaston Eyskens formed a coalition with the Socialists in June. The coalition retained its majority in 1971, but the cabinet resigned in November 1972. A three-party coalition under Socialist leadership followed, but, weakened by linguistic and cultural tensions, it fell in January 1974. After elections in March, the Christian Democrat leader, Léo Tindemans, formed a coalition with the Liberals and the Rassemblement Wallon. He held office until February 1977 despite an economic recession. Elections followed in April, but the results made formation of a new government impossible until an agreement was reached providing for greater regional autonomy. That agreement was rejected by parliament, and new elections in December 1978 proved inconclusive.

In the 1980s the Christian Democrat parties formed the cabinets, usually under the leadership of Wilfried Martens. He formed his eighth government in 1988, and in January 1989 parliament passed a devolution bill designed to transfer power from the central government to the three ethnolinguistic federal regions. Implementation of this law moved slowly, and the November 1991 elections resulted in a reduced plurality for the Christian Democrats. Martens resigned as party leader, and his successor, Jean-Luc Dehaene, formed a new center-left government in March 1992.

Belgium moved to support increased economic and political cooperation in Europe by ratifying the Treaty on European Union, or the Maastricht Treaty, in the fall of 1992. In May 1993 Belgium approved the devolution process and it became a federal state with three regions�Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels�in July of that year. King Baudouin died on July 31, 1993, and was succeeded by his brother Albert, who ruled as Albert II. In parliamentary elections held in May 1995, Dehaene�s coalition was returned to power. Belgium took another step toward integrating with Europe in May 1998, when it officially agreed to replace its national currency with a new single European currency, the euro. The euro was introduced in 1999 and will entirely replace the Belgian currency, along with the currencies of other European nations participating in the single currency, in 2002.