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Slovenia (Slovenian Slovenija), republic in southeastern Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula, bounded on the north by Austria, on the northeast by Hungary, on the southeast and south by Croatia, and on the west by Italy and the Adriatic Sea. Formerly a constituent republic of Yugoslavia, Slovenia proclaimed its independence in June 1991. It joined the United Nations (UN) in May 1992. The republic has an area of 20,253 sq km (7,820 sq mi). Ljubljana is the capital and largest city.

Slovenia is mountainous, much like Austria to the north and northern Italy to the west, and has heavily forested regions. The eastern third of the republic lies within the Karst, a barren limestone plateau broken by depressions and ridges. The highest point in the country, Mount Triglav, rises 2,863 m (9,393 ft) and forms part of the Julian Alps in the northwestern region of the republic. The Mura, Drava, and Sava rivers flow through the forested northeastern region of the republic. Southwestern Slovenia has a small stretch of coastline, extending 32 km (20 mi) along the Gulf of Venice (an arm of the Adriatic Sea).

Towns along the coastline enjoy a warm Mediterranean climate, while those in the mountains to the north often have harsh winters and rainy summers. The plateaus to the east, where Ljubljana is situated, have a more moderate continental climate with warm to hot summers and cold winters.

Two national symbols, the linden tree and the chamois (a shy, antelopelike animal), thrive throughout the republic. Coal is the most abundant natural resource in Slovenia; other resources include lead, zinc, mercury, uranium, and silver, as well as natural gas and petroleum.

The population of Slovenia at the 1991 census was 1,962,606. In 2001 the country had an estimated population of 1,930,132, giving it an overall population density of 95 persons per sq km (247 per sq mi). Slovenes, a Slavic ethnic group, constitute about 88 percent of the republic�s population. Slovenes speak Slovenian, the republic�s official language (see Slovenian Language). Unlike other Slavic cultures, Slovenes have been heavily influenced by German and Austrian cultures for nearly a millennium. Despite more than 70 years of affiliation with Yugoslavia, Slovene culture exhibits many similarities to Germanic cultures. Slovenian is written in the Latin alphabet�unlike Serbian and many other Slavic languages, which are written in the Cyrillic alphabet�and has many dialects. In addition, most people in Slovenia are Roman Catholic. Ethnic Serbs (about 2 percent), Croats (about 3 percent), and various other ethnic groups (about 7 percent) constitute the remainder of Slovenia�s population. In addition, in the mid-1990s Slovenia was home to some 20,000 refugees from the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (see Yugoslav Succession, Wars of).

Some 52 percent of all Slovenes live in urban areas, particularly in Ljubljana (population, 1997 estimate, 330,000) and Maribor (103,113), the republic�s two largest cities. Many of the remainder live in rural areas throughout the republic, particularly in alpine villages, where skiing is one of the most popular forms of recreation. In the cities Slovenes enjoy concerts, operas, and art galleries.

The Slovene government requires that all children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15. Almost all Slovenes over the age of ten can read and write, and 36 percent of students receive postsecondary or higher levels of education. There are 30 institutions of higher education in Slovenia; among them is the University of Ljubljana, which was founded in 1595.

Prior to independence Slovenia was the most prosperous of the six Yugoslav republics. However, the wars that took place in the region during the early and mid-1990s seriously affected Slovenia�s economy. The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was $6,052 in 1992, a sharp decline from the pre-independence figure of $8,658 in 1990. Trade with other countries and tourism were also limited by the war, and the large population of war refugees was a further drain on the economy. In recent years, economic leaders have made efforts to turn the economy around, implementing market and bank reforms and promoting privatization. The presence of a non-Communist government since 1990, along with the republic�s sound infrastructure and skilled workforce, helped reverse the downward trend. The GDP began to grow in 1993, and by 1995 was increasing at 5 percent a year. Inflation slowed, and unemployment decreased to a rate lower than many countries of Western Europe. In 1999 the GDP had increased to $20 billion, or $10,080 per person.

Industry constituted 38 percent of GDP in Slovenia in 1999. The republic�s chief industries produce electrical equipment, processed food, textiles, paper and paper products, chemicals, and wood products. Agriculture accounts for 4 percent of GDP, with dairy farming and livestock dominating this sector. Major crops include cereals such as corn and wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, and fruits (particularly grapes). Germany is by far Slovenia�s most important trading partner in both exports and imports. The other leading countries buying Slovenian goods are Croatia, Italy, France, and Austria. Exports include electrical machinery, road vehicles, chemicals and chemical products, footwear, and furniture. Tourism is also a major source of revenue, with popular resorts at Lake Bled and in the mountains. Revenues from tourism rebounded in 1994 to increase by 8 percent over prewar levels. The largest number of visitors are from Italy, Germany, and Austria.

Slovenia has an excellent transportation network. It contained 20,126 km (12,506 mi) of roads in 1999, and its largest cities are connected by railroads. There are also three major airports and a port at Koper on the Adriatic Sea. In October 1991 the republic released its own currency, the tolar, to replace the Yugoslav dinar (182 tolars equal U.S.$1; 1999 average).

In early 1993 Slovenia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (since renamed the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, or OSCE). The republic also revived economic contacts with Austria and Italy and established new relations with Iran, China, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. In June 1996 Slovenia became an associate member of the European Union (EU). In December 1997 it was invited to begin the process of joining the organization as a full member.

An emerging democracy, Slovenia has adopted many elements of democratic government. In December 1991 the Slovenian government adopted a constitution that guarantees a number of civil rights, including universal suffrage for all Slovenes age 18 and older (Slovenes age 16 and older may vote if they are employed), freedom of religion, and freedom of the press. Slovenia�s parliament consists of a 90-member State Assembly, which makes the republic�s laws, and a 40-member State Council, which can only propose laws or request reconsideration of a vote in the assembly. Assembly members serve four-year terms, and council members serve five-year terms. The parliament is headed by the prime minister, Slovenia�s true head of government, who is elected to a four-year term by the assembly. The country also has a president, who is elected to a five-year term by popular vote.

Slovenia has a multiparty system of government. After the 1996 elections, the country�s leading parties included the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS), the Slovenian People�s Party, the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia, the Christian Democratic Party, United List, the Slovenian National Party, the Democratic Party of Slovenia, and Greens of Slovenia.

Slovenia has eight trial courts, four appellate courts, and a Supreme Court. The Assembly appoints all judges, including the justices of the Supreme Court. Slovenia has an extensive network of social service programs sponsored by the government, including low-cost medical coverage and retirement pensions.

The republic employed an army of 9,000 active-duty soldiers in 1999, with a large reserve force. Conscription begins at age 18 and lasts seven months. Slovenia is a member of the Council of Europe(CE), the Central European Initiative (CEI), and the United Nations (UN). Slovenia also has signed defense accords with Austria and Hungary.

Under the Roman Empire (27 bc-ad 476), Slovenia was part of the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. During the 6th century ad, the region was invaded by the Mongolian Avars and later by Slavs who threw off Avar domination. A period of Bavarian rule ensued, during which most of the people converted to Roman Catholicism. In ad 623, chieftain Franko Samo created the first independent Slovene state, which stretched from Lake Balaton (now located within Hungary) to the Mediterranean. It lasted until late in the 8th century, when the region became part of the Frankish Empire. In the 10th century it was reorganized as the duchy of Carantania by Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. From 1335 until 1918, except for a brief interlude from 1809 to 1814, Slovenes were governed by the Habsburgs of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the Austrian crown lands of Kärnten (Carinthia), Carniola, and Steiermark (Styria), except for a minority in the republic of Venice. During the Napoleonic Wars, the region was taken from Austria by France and reorganized as part of the Illyrian Provinces from 1809 to 1814. This brief period of liberal rule fostered Slovene and South Slav nationalism that triumphed at the close of World War I in 1918, with the formation of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929). In 1941, during World War II, Germany, Hungary, and Italy divided the territory among themselves. In spite of forced transfers of populations during the war, since 1945 most Slovenes have lived in the Slovenian republic, which in 1947 also acquired Slovenian-speaking districts on the Adriatic Sea (in Istria) from Italy.

Slovenia�s dissatisfaction with the Yugoslav federation grew during the 1980s, with increased sentiment first for greater autonomy and then for independence. As Communist power crumbled throughout Eastern Europe, Slovenia held the first multiparty elections in Yugoslavia since World War II in April 1990. The winning coalition called for independence, and nearly 90 percent of Slovenia�s population voted for independence in a referendum in December 1990. In June 1991, following various political upsets, including Serbian refusal to transfer the country�s rotating presidency to the Croatian representative, Slovenia and Croatia each declared independence from Yugoslavia. The Serb-dominated Yugoslav People�s Army (JNA) sent forces to both republics in an attempt to secure Yugoslavia�s borders. In Slovenia, a ten-day war ensued, in which Slovene forces defeated the JNA. The JNA�s defeat, perhaps coupled with fighting in Serbia�s closer neighbor, Croatia, allowed Slovenia quickly to secure true independence as well as international recognition as a separate republic. In January 1992 the European Community (now the European Union, or EU), led by Germany, acknowledged the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The United States acknowledged their independence in April.

Independent Slovenia�s first presidential and parliamentary elections were held in December 1992. Milan Kučan, president of the republic since 1990, was reelected to the office by 64 percent of the vote. The center-left Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS), headed by Janez Drnovšek, won a plurality of seats in parliament, and Drnovšek became the country�s prime minister. The Christian Democratic Party won the second largest number of parliamentary seats.

In 1992 Slovenia began instituting economic reforms and joined various international organizations. It also become a haven for refugees of the surrounding war-torn republics, and by mid-1993 about 60,000 people had sought refuge in Slovenia. In 1994 and early 1995 Slovenia made progress in resolving its disputes with Italy and Croatia�the only lingering complications from the republic�s quest for sovereignty. In January 1994 Slovenia and Croatia reached an agreement on decommissioning the shared nuclear power facility at Krško, near the Slovenia-Croatia border. Slovenia and Italy worked successfully to negotiate their dispute over the property rights of ethnic Italians who fled Slovenia after World War II and whose property was confiscated by the Yugoslav government. Italy had threatened to block Slovenia�s entry into the EU until the issue was resolved, but the Italian government backed off from this stance in early 1995. In June 1996 Slovenia signed an association agreement with the EU; in December 1997 it was invited to begin the process of becoming a full member.